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Endocrinology Vol. 141, No. 11 4255-4261
Copyright © 2000 by The Endocrine Society

ARTICLES

Ghrelin, a Novel Growth Hormone-Releasing Acylated Peptide, Is Synthesized in a Distinct Endocrine Cell Type in the Gastrointestinal Tracts of Rats and Humans1

Yukari Date, Masayasu Kojima, Hiroshi Hosoda, Akira Sawaguchi, Muhtashan S. Mondal, Tatsuo Suganuma, Shigeru Matsukura, Kenji Kangawa and Masamitsu Nakazato

Third Division (Y.D., M.S.M., S.M., M.N.), Department of Internal Medicine, and Second Department of Anatomy (A.S., T.S.), Miyazaki Medical College, Miyazaki 889-1692; and National Cardiovascular Center Research Institute (M.K., H.H., K.K.), Osaka 565-8565, Japan

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Masamitsu Nakazato, M.D., Ph.D., Third Department of Internal Medicine, Miyazaki Medical College, Kiyotake, Miyazaki 889-1692, Japan. E-mail: nakazato{at}post.miyazaki-med.ac.jp

Ghrelin, a novel GH-releasing acylated peptide, was recently isolated from rat stomach. It stimulated the release of GH from the anterior pituitary through the GH secretagogue receptor (GHS-R). Ghrelin messenger RNA and the peptide are present in rat stomach, but its cellular source has yet to be determined. Using two different antibodies against the N- and C-terminal regions of rat ghrelin, we identified ghrelin-producing cells in the gastrointestinal tracts of rats and humans by light and electron microscopic immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization combined with immunohistochemistry. Ghrelin-immunoreactive cells, which are not enterochromaffin-like cells, D cells, or enterochromaffin cells, accounted for about 20% of the endocrine cell population in rat and human oxyntic glands. Rat ghrelin was present in round, compact, electron-dense granules compatible with those of X/A-like cells whose hormonal product and physiological functions have not previously been clarified. The localization, population, and ultrastructural features of ghrelin-producing cells (Gr cells) indicate that they are X/A-like cells. Ghrelin also was found in enteric endocrine cells of rats and humans. Using two RIAs for the N- and C-terminal regions of ghrelin, we determined its content in the rat gastrointestinal tract. Rat ghrelin was present from the stomach to the colon, with the highest content being in the gastric fundus. Messenger RNAs of ghrelin and GHS-R also were found in these organs. Ghrelin probably functions not only in the control of GH secretion, but also in the regulation of diverse processes of the digestive system. Our findings provide clues to additional, as yet undefined, physiological functions of this novel gastrointestinal hormone.




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Physiol Rev, October 1, 2005; 85(4): 1131 - 1158.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.Home page
X.-B. Xu, J.-J. Pang, J.-M. Cao, C. Ni, R.-K. Xu, X.-Z. Peng, X.-X. Yu, S. Guo, M.-C. Chen, and C. Chen
GH-releasing peptides improve cardiac dysfunction and cachexia and suppress stress-related hormones and cardiomyocyte apoptosis in rats with heart failure
Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2005; 289(4): H1643 - H1651.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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N Govoni, R De Iasio, C Cocco, A Parmeggiani, G Galeati, U Pagotto, C Brancia, M Spinaci, C Tamanini, R Pasquali, et al.
Gastric immunolocalization and plasma profiles of acyl-ghrelin in fasted and fasted-refed prepuberal gilts
J. Endocrinol., September 1, 2005; 186(3): 505 - 513.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
P. Zizzari, H. Halem, J. Taylor, J. Z. Dong, R. Datta, M. D. Culler, J. Epelbaum, and M. T. Bluet-Pajot
Endogenous Ghrelin Regulates Episodic Growth Hormone (GH) Secretion by Amplifying GH Pulse Amplitude: Evidence from Antagonism of the GH Secretagogue-R1a Receptor
Endocrinology, September 1, 2005; 146(9): 3836 - 3842.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
Y. Date, K. Toshinai, S. Koda, M. Miyazato, T. Shimbara, T. Tsuruta, A. Niijima, K. Kangawa, and M. Nakazato
Peripheral Interaction of Ghrelin with Cholecystokinin on Feeding Regulation
Endocrinology, August 1, 2005; 146(8): 3518 - 3525.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Hum ReprodHome page
D. Panidis, D. Farmakiotis, G. Koliakos, D. Rousso, A. Kourtis, I. Katsikis, C. Asteriadis, V. Karayannis, and E. Diamanti-Kandarakis
Comparative study of plasma ghrelin levels in women with polycystic ovary syndrome, in hyperandrogenic women and in normal controls
Hum. Reprod., August 1, 2005; 20(8): 2127 - 2132.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
P. J. Currie, A. Mirza, R. Fuld, D. Park, and J. R. Vasselli
Ghrelin is an orexigenic and metabolic signaling peptide in the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, August 1, 2005; 289(2): R353 - R358.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Clin. Chem.Home page
C. Chiesa, J. F. Osborn, L. Pacifico, G. Tellan, P. M. Strappini, R. Fazio, and G. Delogu
Circulating Ghrelin in Patients Undergoing Elective Cholecystectomy
Clin. Chem., July 1, 2005; 51(7): 1258 - 1261.
[Full Text] [PDF]

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 GutHome page
C Dornonville de la Cour, A Lindqvist, E Egecioglu, Y C L Tung, V Surve, C Ohlsson, J-O Jansson, C Erlanson-Albertsson, S L Dickson, and R Hakanson
Ghrelin treatment reverses the reduction in weight gain and body fat in gastrectomised mice
Gut, July 1, 2005; 54(7): 907 - 913.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol.Home page
S. Fukuhara, H. Suzuki, T. Masaoka, M. Arakawa, H. Hosoda, Y. Minegishi, K. Kangawa, H. Ishii, M. Kitajima, and T. Hibi
Enhanced ghrelin secretion in rats with cysteamine-induced duodenal ulcers
Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, July 1, 2005; 289(1): G138 - G145.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
G Natalucci, S Riedl, A Gleiss, T Zidek, and H Frisch
Spontaneous 24-h ghrelin secretion pattern in fasting subjects: maintenance of a meal-related pattern
Eur. J. Endocrinol., June 1, 2005; 152(6): 845 - 850.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Clin. Chem.Home page
M. Groschl, H. G. Topf, J. Bohlender, J. Zenk, S. Klussmann, J. Dotsch, W. Rascher, and M. Rauh
Identification of Ghrelin in Human Saliva: Production by the Salivary Glands and Potential Role in Proliferation of Oral Keratinocytes
Clin. Chem., June 1, 2005; 51(6): 997 - 1006.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
J. Calissendorff, O. Danielsson, K. Brismar, and S. Rojdmark
Inhibitory effect of alcohol on ghrelin secretion in normal man
Eur. J. Endocrinol., May 1, 2005; 152(5): 743 - 747.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
E. Kellokoski, S. M. Poykko, A. H. Karjalainen, O. Ukkola, J. Heikkinen, Y. A. Kesaniemi, and S. Horkko
Estrogen Replacement Therapy Increases Plasma Ghrelin Levels
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2005; 90(5): 2954 - 2963.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
Y. Nishi, H. Hiejima, H. Hosoda, H. Kaiya, K. Mori, Y. Fukue, T. Yanase, H. Nawata, K. Kangawa, and M. Kojima
Ingested Medium-Chain Fatty Acids Are Directly Utilized for the Acyl Modification of Ghrelin
Endocrinology, May 1, 2005; 146(5): 2255 - 2264.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Nutr.Home page
D. L. Williams and D. E. Cummings
Regulation of Ghrelin in Physiologic and Pathophysiologic States
J. Nutr., May 1, 2005; 135(5): 1320 - 1325.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
H. Iwakura, K. Hosoda, C. Son, J. Fujikura, T. Tomita, M. Noguchi, H. Ariyasu, K. Takaya, H. Masuzaki, Y. Ogawa, et al.
Analysis of Rat Insulin II Promoter-Ghrelin Transgenic Mice and Rat Glucagon Promoter-Ghrelin Transgenic Mice
J. Biol. Chem., April 15, 2005; 280(15): 15247 - 15256.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Physiol. Rev.Home page
M. Kojima and K. Kangawa
Ghrelin: Structure and Function
Physiol Rev, April 1, 2005; 85(2): 495 - 522.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
V. Popovic, D. Miljic, S. Pekic, P. Pesko, M. Djurovic, M. Doknic, S. Damjanovic, D. Micic, G. Cvijovic, J. Glodic, et al.
Low Plasma Ghrelin Level in Gastrectomized Patients Is Accompanied by Enhanced Sensitivity to the Ghrelin-Induced Growth Hormone Release
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 2005; 90(4): 2187 - 2191.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
S. Stock, P. Leichner, A. C. K. Wong, M. A. Ghatei, T. J. Kieffer, S. R. Bloom, and J.-P. Chanoine
Ghrelin, Peptide YY, Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide, and Hunger Responses to a Mixed Meal in Anorexic, Obese, and Control Female Adolescents
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 2005; 90(4): 2161 - 2168.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
F. Rubino, P. Zizzari, C. Tomasetto, M.-T. Bluet-Pajot, A. Forgione, M. Vix, D. Grouselle, and J. Marescaux
The Role of the Small Bowel in the Regulation of Circulating Ghrelin Levels and Food Intake in the Obese Zucker Rat
Endocrinology, April 1, 2005; 146(4): 1745 - 1751.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
Z. Hu, S. H. Cha, G. van Haasteren, J. Wang, and M. D. Lane
From the Cover: Effect of centrally administered C75, a fatty acid synthase inhibitor, on ghrelin secretion and its downstream effects
PNAS, March 15, 2005; 102(11): 3972 - 3977.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
W. Wei, G. Wang, X. Qi, E. W. Englander, and G. H. Greeley Jr.
Characterization and Regulation of the Rat and Human Ghrelin Promoters
Endocrinology, March 1, 2005; 146(3): 1611 - 1625.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J EndocrinolHome page
K. Wynne, S. Stanley, B. McGowan, and S. Bloom
Appetite control
J. Endocrinol., February 1, 2005; 184(2): 291 - 318.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
K. E. Foster-Schubert, A. McTiernan, R. S. Frayo, R. S. Schwartz, K. B. Rajan, Y. Yasui, S. S. Tworoger, and D. E. Cummings
Human Plasma Ghrelin Levels Increase during a One-Year Exercise Program
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., February 1, 2005; 90(2): 820 - 825.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
J. Overduin, R. S. Frayo, H. J. Grill, J. M. Kaplan, and D. E. Cummings
Role of the Duodenum and Macronutrient Type in Ghrelin Regulation
Endocrinology, February 1, 2005; 146(2): 845 - 850.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur J EndocrinolHome page
M. Yokoyama, K. Nakahara, M. Kojima, H. Hosoda, K. Kangawa, and N. Murakami
Influencing the between-feeding and endocrine responses of plasma ghrelin in healthy dogs
Eur. J. Endocrinol., January 1, 2005; 152(1): 155 - 160.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
H. Osawa, M. Nakazato, Y. Date, H. Kita, H. Ohnishi, H. Ueno, T. Shiiya, K. Satoh, Y. Ishino, and K. Sugano
Impaired Production of Gastric Ghrelin in Chronic Gastritis Associated with Helicobacter pylori
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2005; 90(1): 10 - 16.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
H. Ariyasu, K. Takaya, H. Iwakura, H. Hosoda, T. Akamizu, Y. Arai, K. Kangawa, and K. Nakao
Transgenic Mice Overexpressing Des-Acyl Ghrelin Show Small Phenotype
Endocrinology, January 1, 2005; 146(1): 355 - 364.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
P. L. Jeffery, R. P. Duncan, A. H. Yeh, R. A. Jaskolski, D. S. Hammond, A. C. Herington, and L. K. Chopin
Expression of the Ghrelin Axis in the Mouse: An Exon 4-Deleted Mouse Proghrelin Variant Encodes a Novel C Terminal Peptide
Endocrinology, January 1, 2005; 146(1): 432 - 440.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
T. Y. Jeon, S. Lee, H. H. Kim, Y. J. Kim, H. C. Son, D. H. Kim, and M. S. Sim
Changes in Plasma Ghrelin Concentration Immediately after Gastrectomy in Patients with Early Gastric Cancer
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2004; 89(11): 5392 - 5396.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
P. C. Ng, C. H. Lee, C. W. K. Lam, E. Wong, I. H. S. Chan, and T. F. Fok
Plasma Ghrelin and Resistin Concentrations Are Suppressed in Infants of Insulin-Dependent Diabetic Mothers
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2004; 89(11): 5563 - 5568.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Exp. Biol. Med.Home page
G. Rindi, A. Torsello, V. Locatelli, and E. Solcia
Ghrelin Expression and Actions: A Novel Peptide for an Old Cell Type of the Diffuse Endocrine System
Experimental Biology and Medicine, November 1, 2004; 229(10): 1007 - 1016.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol.Home page
B. Bodosi, J. Gardi, I. Hajdu, E. Szentirmai, F. Obal Jr., and J. M. Krueger
Rhythms of ghrelin, leptin, and sleep in rats: effects of the normal diurnal cycle, restricted feeding, and sleep deprivation
Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2004; 287(5): R1071 - R1079.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
J. Sanchez, P. Oliver, A. Palou, and C. Pico
The Inhibition of Gastric Ghrelin Production by Food Intake in Rats Is Dependent on the Type of Macronutrient
Endocrinology, November 1, 2004; 145(11): 5049 - 5055.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
C. Gauna, F. M. Meyler, J. A. M. J. L. Janssen, P. J. D. Delhanty, T. Abribat, P. van Koetsveld, L. J. Hofland, F. Broglio, E. Ghigo, and A. J. van der Lely
Administration of Acylated Ghrelin Reduces Insulin Sensitivity, Whereas the Combination of Acylated Plus Unacylated Ghrelin Strongly Improves Insulin Sensitivity
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2004; 89(10): 5035 - 5042.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 EndocrinologyHome page
R. W. Gelling, J. Overduin, C. D. Morrison, G. J. Morton, R. S. Frayo, D. E. Cummings, and M. W. Schwartz
Effect of Uncontrolled Diabetes on Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations and Ghrelin-Induced Feeding
Endocrinology, October 1, 2004; 145(10): 4575 - 4582.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Physiol.Home page
W. Zhang, T. R. Lin, Y. Hu, Y. Fan, L. Zhao, E. L. Stuenkel, and M. W. Mulholland
Ghrelin stimulates neurogenesis in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus
J. Physiol., September 15, 2004; 559(3): 729 - 737.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
S. Helmling, C. Maasch, D. Eulberg, K. Buchner, W. Schroder, C. Lange, S. Vonhoff, B. Wlotzka, M. H. Tschop, S. Rosewicz, et al.
Inhibition of ghrelin action in vitro and in vivo by an RNA-Spiegelmer
PNAS, September 7, 2004; 101(36): 13174 - 13179.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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