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Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Gene Expression Laboratory (C.-H.L., P.O., R.M.E.), The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037; and Department of Biology (P.O.), University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Ronald M. Evans, Ph.D., Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037. E-mail: evans{at}salk.edu.
Lipid and carbohydrate homeostasis in higher organisms is under the control of an integrated system that has the capacity to rapidly respond to metabolic changes. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear fatty acid receptors that have been implicated to play an important role in obesity-related metabolic diseases such as hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, and coronary artery disease. The three PPAR subtypes,
,
, and
, have distinct expression patterns and evolved to sense components of different lipoproteins and regulate lipid homeostasis based on the need of a specific tissue. Recent advances in identifying selective ligands in conjunction with microarray analyses and gene targeting studies have helped delineate the subtype-specific functions and the therapeutic potential of these receptors. PPAR
potentiates fatty acid catabolism in the liver and is the molecular target of the lipid-lowering fibrates (e.g. fenofibrate and gemfibrozil), whereas PPAR
is essential for adipocyte differentiation and mediates the activity of the insulin-sensitizing thiazolidinediones (e.g. rosiglitazone and pioglitazone). Recent evidence suggests that PPAR
may be important in controlling triglyceride levels by sensing very low-density lipoprotein. Thus, uncovering the regulatory mechanisms and transcriptional targets of the PPARs will continue to provide insight into the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases and, at the same time, offer valuable information for rational drug design.
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A. Xu, M. C. Lam, K. W. Chan, Y. Wang, J. Zhang, R. L. C. Hoo, J. Y. Xu, B. Chen, W.-S. Chow, A. W. K. Tso, et al. Angiopoietin-like protein 4 decreases blood glucose and improves glucose tolerance but induces hyperlipidemia and hepatic steatosis in mice PNAS, April 26, 2005; 102(17): 6086 - 6091. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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M. F. Simon, D. Daviaud, J. P. Pradere, S. Gres, C. Guigne, M. Wabitsch, J. Chun, P. Valet, and J. S. Saulnier-Blache Lysophosphatidic Acid Inhibits Adipocyte Differentiation via Lysophosphatidic Acid 1 Receptor-dependent Down-regulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor {gamma}2 J. Biol. Chem., April 15, 2005; 280(15): 14656 - 14662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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D. K. Kramer, L. Al-Khalili, S. Perrini, J. Skogsberg, P. Wretenberg, K. Kannisto, H. Wallberg-Henriksson, E. Ehrenborg, J. R. Zierath, and A. Krook Direct Activation of Glucose Transport in Primary Human Myotubes After Activation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {delta} Diabetes, April 1, 2005; 54(4): 1157 - 1163. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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H.-L. Fang, S. C. Strom, H. Cai, C. N. Falany, T. A. Kocarek, and M. Runge-Morris Regulation of Human Hepatic Hydroxysteroid Sulfotransferase Gene Expression by the Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {alpha} Transcription Factor Mol. Pharmacol., April 1, 2005; 67(4): 1257 - 1267. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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F. Djouadi, F. Aubey, D. Schlemmer, and J. Bastin Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor {delta} (PPAR{delta}) Agonist But Not PPAR{alpha} Corrects Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase 2 Deficiency in Human Muscle Cells J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2005; 90(3): 1791 - 1797. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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L. Julan, H. Guan, J. P. van Beek, and K. Yang Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {delta} Suppresses 11{beta}-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 Gene Expression in Human Placental Trophoblast Cells Endocrinology, March 1, 2005; 146(3): 1482 - 1490. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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S. Lee, D.-K. Lee, E. Choi, and J. W. Lee Identification of a Functional Vitamin D Response Element in the Murine Insig-2 Promoter and Its Potential Role in the Differentiation of 3T3-L1 Preadipocytes Mol. Endocrinol., February 1, 2005; 19(2): 399 - 408. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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S. A. Balaguer, R. A. Pershing, C. Rodriguez-Sallaberry, W. W. Thatcher, and L. Badinga Effects of Bovine Somatotropin on Uterine Genes Related to the Prostaglandin Cascade in Lactating Dairy Cows J Dairy Sci, February 1, 2005; 88(2): 543 - 552. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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U. Kintscher and R. E. Law PPAR{gamma}-mediated insulin sensitization: the importance of fat versus muscle Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, February 1, 2005; 288(2): E287 - E291. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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A. Y.Y. Cheng and I. G. Fantus Oral antihyperglycemic therapy for type 2 diabetes mellitus Can. Med. Assoc. J., January 18, 2005; 172(2): 213 - 226. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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H. Patel, R. Truant, R. A. Rachubinski, and J. P. Capone Activity and subcellular compartmentalization of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor {alpha} are altered by the centrosome-associated protein CAP350 J. Cell Sci., January 1, 2005; 118(1): 175 - 186. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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T. Hays, I. Rusyn, A. M. Burns, M. J. Kennett, J. M. Ward, F. J. Gonzalez, and J. M. Peters Role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-{alpha} (PPAR{alpha}) in bezafibrate-induced hepatocarcinogenesis and cholestasis Carcinogenesis, January 1, 2005; 26(1): 219 - 227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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P. R. Devchand, O. Ziouzenkova, and J. Plutzky Oxidative Stress and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors: Reversing the Curse? Circ. Res., December 10, 2004; 95(12): 1137 - 1139. [Full Text] [PDF] |
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S. S. T. Lee, W.-Y. Chan, C. K. C. Lo, D. C. C. Wan, D. S. C. Tsang, and W.-T. Cheung Requirement of PPAR{alpha} in maintaining phospholipid and triacylglycerol homeostasis during energy deprivation J. Lipid Res., November 1, 2004; 45(11): 2025 - 2037. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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V. E. Richards, B. Chau, M. R. White, and C. A. McQueen Hepatic Gene Expression and Lipid Homeostasis in C57Bl/6 Mice Exposed to Hydrazine or Acetylhydrazine Toxicol. Sci., November 1, 2004; 82(1): 318 - 332. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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Y. Guan Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Family and Its Relationship to Renal Complications of the Metabolic Syndrome J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., November 1, 2004; 15(11): 2801 - 2815. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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J. M. Huss, I. P. Torra, B. Staels, V. Giguere, and D. P. Kelly Estrogen-Related Receptor {alpha} Directs Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {alpha} Signaling in the Transcriptional Control of Energy Metabolism in Cardiac and Skeletal Muscle Mol. Cell. Biol., October 15, 2004; 24(20): 9079 - 9091. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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B. Brunmair, A. Lest, K. Staniek, F. Gras, N. Scharf, M. Roden, H. Nohl, W. Waldhausl, and C. Furnsinn Fenofibrate Impairs Rat Mitochondrial Function by Inhibition of Respiratory Complex I J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., October 1, 2004; 311(1): 109 - 114. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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J. M. Huss and D. P. Kelly Nuclear Receptor Signaling and Cardiac Energetics Circ. Res., September 17, 2004; 95(6): 568 - 578. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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S. Chintharlapalli, R. Smith III, I. Samudio, W. Zhang, and S. Safe 1,1-Bis(3'-indolyl)-1-(p-substitutedphenyl)methanes Induce Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor {gamma}-Mediated Growth Inhibition, Transactivation, and Differentiation Markers in Colon Cancer Cells Cancer Res., September 1, 2004; 64(17): 5994 - 6001. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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P. Yubero, E. Hondares, M. C. Carmona, M. Rossell, F. J. Gonzalez, R. Iglesias, M. Giralt, and F. Villarroya The Developmental Regulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-{gamma} Coactivator-1{alpha} Expression in the Liver Is Partially Dissociated from the Control of Gluconeogenesis and Lipid Catabolism Endocrinology, September 1, 2004; 145(9): 4268 - 4277. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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Y. Liu, Y. Zhu, F. Rannou, T.-S. Lee, K. Formentin, L. Zeng, X. Yuan, N. Wang, S. Chien, B. M. Forman, et al. Laminar Flow Activates Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-{gamma} in Vascular Endothelial Cells Circulation, August 31, 2004; 110(9): 1128 - 1133. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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K. Kitajka, A. J. Sinclair, R. S. Weisinger, H. S. Weisinger, M. Mathai, A. P. Jayasooriya, J. E. Halver, and L. G. Puskas Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain gene expression PNAS, July 27, 2004; 101(30): 10931 - 10936. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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W. Khovidhunkit, M.-S. Kim, R. A. Memon, J. K. Shigenaga, A. H. Moser, K. R. Feingold, and C. Grunfeld Thematic review series: The Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis. Effects of infection and inflammation on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism mechanisms and consequences to the host J. Lipid Res., July 1, 2004; 45(7): 1169 - 1196. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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Y.-m. Liu, M. Moldes, J.-P. Bastard, E. Bruckert, N. Viguerie, B. Hainque, A. Basdevant, D. Langin, J. Pairault, and K. Clement Adiponutrin: A New Gene Regulated by Energy Balance in Human Adipose Tissue J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2004; 89(6): 2684 - 2689. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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Y. Shidoji and H. Ogawa Natural occurrence of cancer-preventive geranylgeranoic acid in medicinal herbs J. Lipid Res., June 1, 2004; 45(6): 1092 - 1103. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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G. Leonardsson, J. H. Steel, M. Christian, V. Pocock, S. Milligan, J. Bell, P.-W. So, G. Medina-Gomez, A. Vidal-Puig, R. White, et al. Nuclear receptor corepressor RIP140 regulates fat accumulation PNAS, June 1, 2004; 101(22): 8437 - 8442. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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C. K. Sung, H. She, S. Xiong, and H. Tsukamoto Tumor necrosis factor-{alpha} inhibits peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor {gamma} activity at a posttranslational level in hepatic stellate cells Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, May 1, 2004; 286(5): G722 - G729. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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R. Mishra, S. N. Emancipator, C. Miller, T. Kern, and M. S. Simonson Adipose differentiation-related protein and regulators of lipid homeostasis identified by gene expression profiling in the murine db/db diabetic kidney Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, May 1, 2004; 286(5): F913 - F921. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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T. Imai, R. Takakuwa, S. Marchand, E. Dentz, J.-M. Bornert, N. Messaddeq, O. Wendling, M. Mark, B. Desvergne, W. Wahli, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor {gamma} is required in mature white and brown adipocytes for their survival in the mouse PNAS, March 30, 2004; 101(13): 4543 - 4547. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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V. Giusti, M. Suter, C. Verdumo, R. C. Gaillard, P. Burckhardt, and F. P. Pralong Molecular Determinants of Human Adipose Tissue: Differences between Visceral and Subcutaneous Compartments in Obese Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2004; 89(3): 1379 - 1384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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C. Eftychi, J. M.M. Howson, B. J. Barratt, A. Vella, F. Payne, D. J. Smyth, R. C.J. Twells, N. M. Walker, H. E. Rance, E. Tuomilehto-Wolf, et al. Analysis of the Type 2 Diabetes-Associated Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the Genes IRS1, KCNJ11, and PPARG2 in Type 1 Diabetes Diabetes, March 1, 2004; 53(3): 870 - 873. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
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