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INSULIN-GLUCAGON-GI PEPTIDES-DIABETES MELLITUS |
Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Robert V. Considine, Ph.D., Indiana University School of Medicine, 541 North Clinical Drive, Clinical Building 455, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202-5111. E-mail: rconsidi{at}iupui.edu
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Introduction |
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We recently reported that the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway regulates leptin production in human adipose tissue (7). In this study we found a significant positive correlation between serum leptin and UDP-N-acetylglucosamine in sc adipose tissue. We also observed that exposure of human adipocytes to glucosamine, an intermediate in hexosamine biosynthesis, increased leptin release into the culture medium. In contrast, inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme in hexosamine biosynthesis, glutamine:fructose amidotransferase (GFAT), with 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine resulted in a significant attenuation of leptin production from cultured sc adipocytes. These findings strongly suggest that hexosamine biosynthesis regulates leptin production in human adipose tissue.
The following studies were undertaken to more fully elucidate the mechanism through which hexosamines regulate leptin production. 3T3-L1 adipocytes were used to study changes in LEP gene promoter activity in response to alterations in hexosamine biosynthesis. The data suggest that metabolism of glucose to hexosamines regulates leptin production in 3T3-L1 cells through transcriptional mechanisms acting within the proximal promoter region.
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Materials and Methods |
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Leptin release
For measurement of leptin released to the medium, cells were
plated to confluence and differentiated in six-well Falcon culture
dishes (Fisher Scientific). During each experiment cells
were maintained in 1 ml culture medium. Leptin was measured in 200-µl
aliquots of culture medium in duplicate using a commercially available
RIA kit (Linco Research, Inc., St. Charles, MO). The limit
of detection of this assay is 0.5 ng/ml. The within- and between-assay
coefficients of variation are 4.6% and 5.0% at 7.2 ng/ml.
Measurement of LEP mRNA
LEP mRNA was determined by RT-PCR as previously
described (9) using primers specific for the mouse
LEP gene (upstream, 5'-atgtgctggagacccctgtg-3'; downstream,
5'-gggctaacatccaactgttg-3'). All comparisons between samples were made
on the linear portion of the amplification curve (between cycles
20–35), and no product was obtained in the absence of reverse
transcriptase. The data are expressed as the ratio of LEP
cDNA to actin cDNA. There was no difference in the amount of actin cDNA
among the samples studied.
Transfection of differentiated 3T3-L1 cells
Differentiated 3T3-L1 cells were transfected by electroporation
as previously described (10). Briefly, differentiated
cells were trypsinized on d 8 from 100-cm dishes, washed, and
resuspended in Dulbecco’s PBS without Mg2+ or
Ca2+ (Life Technologies, Inc.) at a
concentration of approximately 1 x 107
cells/0.5 ml in the electroporation cuvette. The plasmid DNA to be
transfected (300 µg) was added, and the cells were electroporated
with a single pulse of 960 µF capacitance at 0.16 kV using a Gene
Pulser (model 1652076, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.,
Hercules, CA). The electroporated cells were then plated into six-well
dishes in DMEM/10% FBS. The culture medium was changed to fresh
DMEM/10% FBS 12 h after electroporation. Experiments were started
24 h after electroporation by changing to the appropriate culture
medium. The transfection efficiency was approximately 50%.
Plasmids
The LEP gene promoter construct was the gift of Dr.
Da-Wei Gong, NIH (11). The proximal promoter sequence
(-215 to -1 bp) and the first exon (+1 to +29 bp) were subcloned into
the pGL3-basic vector containing the luciferase reporter gene. The
plasmids were transformed into DH10B competent cells (Life Technologies, Inc.), which were grown under standard conditions.
The plasmid DNA was isolated with Maxiprep kits (QIAGEN,
Valencia, CA). Incorporation of point mutations to destroy Sp1-binding
sites (Fig. 2
) were made using the site-directed mutagenesis system
(Promega Corp., Madison, WI) as previously described
(12).
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Statistical methods
All data in the text and tables are the mean ±
SEM. Statistical comparisons were made using paired
t test or, in the case of data not normally distributed, a
one-sample t test of the percent change between treatment
and control values. No adjustments for multiple comparisons were made.
n denotes one comparison (control and treatment) on adipocytes in one
experiment.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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). However, by 48 h of treatment,
leptin released to the medium was significantly greater than that from
untreated cells, an effect that was maintained until the end of the
96-h period.
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, leptin released into the medium by 48
h of culture with 0.1 mM glucosamine was significantly
increased 14.7 ± 4.7% over the control value. By 96 h in
culture, 0.1 mM glucosamine- induced leptin release was
similar to that induced by 1 mM glucosamine. Glucosamine at
a concentration of 0.01 mM had a small effect on leptin
production, which became significant during the last 24 h of
culture.
Glucosamine-stimulated leptin release in 3T3-L1 cells represents only a
part of that induced by glucose. As shown in Table 1, 5 mM
glucose stimulated leptin production to 759 ± 227% of the
control value during 96 h in culture compared with a maximal
increase of 134.6 ± 6.5% of the control value induced by 1
mM glucosamine. Interestingly, increasing the glucose
concentration to 20 mM did not increase leptin production
over that achieved with 5 mM glucose during the first
48 h of culture. However, 20 mM glucose induced
significantly more leptin production than 5 mM glucose at
72 and 96 h of culture.
The effect of glucose and glucosamine on leptin production is additive at low glucose concentrations. Incubation of cells with 1 mM glucosamine in the presence of 1.25 mM glucose resulted in a significant increase in release (119 ± 6% of glucose alone; n = 5, P = 0.0156) by 48 h in culture. This additive effect was maintained until 96 h of culture (118 ± 5% of glucose alone; n = 5; P = 0.0170). Coincubation of glucosamine with higher concentrations of glucose (2.5 or 5 mM) resulted in no additional release of leptin over that achieved with the glucose alone, most likely due to competition between glucose and glucosamine for uptake into the cell.
It has been reported that exposure to glucosamine can reduce the
concentration of ATP in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (13). To
determine whether glucosamine increased leptin production from 3T3-L1
adipocytes through a toxic effect to deplete intracellular ATP, we
cultured the cells for 48 h in the presence of the mitochondrial
toxin sodium azide. At a concentration of 7 mM, sodium
azide inhibited leptin release within the first 24 h of treatment
(2.29 ± 0.77 vs. 0.20 ± 0.07 ng/ml; n = 5;
P = 0.0004). Leptin release in the first 24 h was
also significantly inhibited in the presence of 1
mM azide (0.83 ± 0.30 ng/ml;
P = 0.0236). Inhibition of leptin release was
maintained up to 48 h in the presence of 7 and 1
mM azide (3.58 ± 1.32 vs.
0.15 ± 0.05 and 0.84 ± 0.26 ng/ml for control, 7 and 1
mM azide respectively; n = 4;
P 
0.0191). Addition of 0.1 mM
azide to the culture medium had no effect on leptin production. These
observations demonstrate that a reduction in intracellular ATP is not a
signal for increased leptin production.
6-Diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) attenuates leptin
release from 3T3-L1 adipocytes
Culture of differentiated 3T3-L1 cells with glucosamine
demonstrates that an increase in hexosamine biosynthesis stimulates
leptin production. It is therefore reasonable that a reduction in
hexosamine biosynthesis should decrease leptin release. DON is a
competitive inhibitor of GFAT that reduces the flux of glucose through
the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway. 3T3-L1 adipocytes were cultured in
DMEM containing glucose (5 mM), glutamine (4
mM), and 10% FBS. As shown in Table 1, DON (20
µM) induced a small, but significant, 13.0 ± 2.3%
reduction in leptin release by 24 h of treatment. Significant
inhibition of leptin release was then maintained throughout the
treatment period, reaching a maximum 29.9 ± 6.6% reduction in
release by 96 h.
The reduction in leptin release in the presence of DON was associated with a decrease in LEP gene expression. By 48 h of DON treatment the amount of LEP mRNA was reduced 21.0 ± 4.9% (12.56 ± 0.37 vs. 9.88 ± 0.57 relative units for control and DON treatment, respectively; n = 6; P = 0.0100). This reduction in LEP mRNA is comparable to the reduction in leptin release to the medium observed at 48 h.
Hexosamines regulate the LEP gene promoter
To understand the mechanism through which hexosamines regulate
leptin production the proximal portion of the human LEP gene
promoter (-215 to +29 bp) was transfected by electroporation into
differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and the cells were cultured for 24
and 48 h. In the absence of glucose the luciferase activity of the
LEP promoter construct was 91 times greater than that from
the plasmid without the promoter sequence (18 ± 9 light units for
three observations in glucose-free medium).
Addition of 5 mM glucose to the culture medium for 24
h significantly increased LEP promoter activity 63.0 ±
19.3% over that in the absence of glucose (Fig. 1). In agreement with the leptin release
data in Table 1, increasing the glucose concentration to 20
mM had no additional stimulatory effect on
LEP promoter activity measured at 24 h (Fig. 1).
Addition of 20 µM DON to cells cultured in 5
mM glucose resulted in a significant reduction in
LEP promoter activity.
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). These observations demonstrate that glucose
regulates the transcription of leptin through actions localized within
the proximal sequence of the LEP promoter and suggest a role
for hexosamine biosynthesis in this regulation.
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). To determine whether LEP
gene transcription is regulated by an effect of hexosamines on Sp1
protein binding to the promoter, the three GC boxes were sequentially
disrupted by the introduction of clustered point mutations. We refer to
the promoter with one mutated GC box (-104 to -92) as Sp1-1X. The
promoter with two mutated GC boxes (-104 to -92 and -128 to -123)
is called Sp1-2X, and the promoter with all three GC boxes mutated is
Sp1-3X. Mutation of the first GC box at -104 to -92 bp (Sp1-1X)
resulted in a significant 6-fold reduction in activity at 24 h
compared with the activity of the nonmutated promoter in glucose free
medium (1621 ± 531 vs. 283 ± 92 relative light
units; P = 0.0198). The activity of Sp1-2x and Sp1-3X
in glucose-free medium was also significantly lower (13- and 8-fold,
respectively) than that of the nonmutated promoter (P =
0.0159). Despite the significant reduction in activity, the mutated
promoters were, on the average, 11 times more active than reporter
plasmid lacking an insert (18 ± 9 relative light units). As shown
in Fig. 2B, culture with 5 mM glucose for 24
h increased the activity of the Sp1-1X promoter to 139 ± 7% of
the control value (P = 0.0195). As observed for the
nonmutated LEP promoter, increasing the glucose
concentration to 20 mM had no additional
stimulatory effect on the activity of Sp1-1X in the first 24 h
(data not shown). In contrast to the LEP promoter, a 24-h
exposure to 20 µM DON did not reduce the
activity of Sp1-1X compared with that in 5 mM
glucose alone (365 ± 108 vs. 392 ± 125 relative
light units for glucose plus DON and glucose alone, respectively). As
shown in Fig. 2B, a 24-h glucose treatment resulted in a significant
increase in the activity of the Sp1-2X promoter (157 ± 7% of
control; P = 0.0526) as well as Sp1-3X (165 ±
40% of control; P = 0.0122).
As observed for the LEP promoter, 1 mM
glucosamine did not significantly increase the activity of the Sp1-1X
or Sp1-3X promoters in the first 24 h of treatment. The activity
of Sp1-2X was significantly increased by a 24-h treatment with
glucosamine (127 ± 38 vs. 167 ± 45 light units
for control and treated, respectively; P = 0.0192).
However, as shown in Fig. 3, culture of
transfected cells with 1 mM glucosamine for
48 h significantly increased the activity of Sp1-1X (157 ±
11% of control), Sp1-2X (147 ± 15% of control), and Sp1-3X
(143 ± 13% of control).
Sp1 is O-glycosylated in 3T3-L1 cells
Sp1 has been shown to be glycosylated in NRK cells treated with
glucosamine (14). To demonstrate that hexosamine
biosynthesis results in glycosylation of transcription factors in
differentiated 3T3-L1 cells, Western blots for Sp1 were performed on
total cell lysates of differentiated cells treated with glucosamine. As
illustrated in the representative blot in Fig. 4, Sp1 was detected as a single band of
approximately 100 kDa. The identity of Sp1 was confirmed in a
subsequent experiment by immunoprecipitation with Sp1-specific antibody
(data not shown). There was no difference in the amount of Sp1 protein
between untreated and glucosamine-treated cells (5922 ± 1672
vs. 6041 ± 1795 density units for control and
glucosamine treated, respectively; n = 3). However, culture of
differentiated cells with 1 mM glucosamine
significantly increased the amount of O-linked glycosylation
16.1 ± 4.5% (Fig. 4, lower panel). These observations
demonstrate that the O-glycosylation of Sp1 in 3T3-L1
adipocytes can be altered by changes in hexosamine biosynthesis.
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Discussion |
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In the current study 3T3-L1 adipocytes were cultured in various concentrations of glucosamine for up to 96 h. A significant effect of glucosamine to increase leptin release (117 ± 7% of the control value) to the medium was detected by 48 h. Glucosamine-induced leptin release was further increased to 135 ± 7% of the control value by 96 h of treatment. The effect of glucosamine to increase leptin release was both time and dose dependent, with significant stimulation achieved by 48 h of treatment with 0.1 mM, but not with 0.01 mM, glucosamine. However, a 96-h exposure to 0.01 mM glucosamine did result in a significant increase in leptin release. These data demonstrate that the synthesis of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine from glucosamine stimulates leptin release.
To maximize the effect of glucosamine to directly increase intracellular UDP-N-acetylglucosamine synthesis and to minimize other effects of glucose metabolism in these studies, 3T3-L1 cells were cultured with glucosamine in the absence of glucose (1 mM pyruvate was present in the medium). Glucosamine enters the cell through the GLUT4 transporter at one quarter the rate of glucose (15); therefore, it competes poorly for uptake into the cell. However, glucosamine significantly increased leptin release in the presence of a low (1.25 mM) concentration of glucose in the culture medium. This observation supports our findings of glucosamine-stimulated leptin production obtained under the nonphysiological condition of complete glucose deprivation.
The stimulation of leptin release by glucosamine represents only a portion of that induced by 5 mM glucose. This is probably due to the utilization of glucose in additional metabolic pathways that influence leptin production, such as synthesis of ATP, in which glucosamine is not a suitable substitute. As discussed in greater detail below, the glucosamine-induced increase in LEP promoter activity was comparable to that induced by glucose, but required a 24-h longer incubation to be detectable. This observation further suggests that glucose metabolism regulates leptin production through mechanisms other than transcription, such as translation or movement of secretory vesicles. Of interest was the observation that increasing the medium glucose concentration from 5 to 20 mM resulted in greater leptin production only during the second 48 h in culture (i.e. from 48–96 h). These observations are consistent with those of Mueller et al. (16) in that leptin release from cultured rat adipocytes is more dependent on glucose than insulin in the medium. Muller et al. also observed that the effect of glucose concentration on leptin release was more apparent during longer culture periods. One interpretation for the delayed leptin response to 20 mM glucose may be that de novo lipid synthesis occurred to increase LEP gene transcription later in the culture period. Future experiments will be needed to address this possibility.
Within the first 24 h of treatment with 1 mM glucosamine, leptin released to the medium was reduced 13.6 ± 5.0% compared with the control in glucose-free medium. However, in the presence of a low (1.25 mM) glucose concentration, 1 mM glucosamine had no effect on leptin release (109 ± 10% of release in the presence of 1.25 mM glucose alone; P = NS). Lower concentrations of glucosamine in glucose-free medium did not reduce leptin production at any time during the culture period. The early reduction in leptin release induced by 1 mM glucosamine was probably due to an effect of glucosamine to reduce intracellular ATP levels. Hresko et al. (13) have shown that a 2.5-h exposure to 1 mM glucosamine in glucose-free medium reduced intracellular ATP concentrations approximately 35% in 3T3-L1 cells. In our studies exposure of cells to 7 and 1 mM sodium azide resulted in almost complete inhibition of leptin production within the first 24 h of treatment, an effect that was maintained to 48 h. This experiment thus demonstrates that ATP depletion can inhibit leptin production and, in light of the observations of Hresko et al. (13), probably explains the early moderate reduction in leptin production in 3T3-L1 cells exposed to glucosamine in the absence of glucose. However, our finding that leptin production then increased to levels significantly greater than the control level during the next 24 h argues against glucosamine-induced reductions in ATP stimulating leptin production. Rather, our data are consistent with the idea that a glucosamine-mediated increment in UDP-N-acetylglucosamine results in increased leptin production. It is important to note that the culture medium used in these experiments contained pyruvate (1 mM), which would be used as an alternative, albeit less efficient, energy source for the generation of ATP in the absence of extracellular glucose.
DON is a competitive inhibitor of GFAT, the rate-limiting enzyme in UDP-N-acetylglucosamine synthesis. At a concentration of 20 µM, DON significantly inhibited leptin release from 3T3-L1 cells within the first 24 h of treatment, and this effect was maintained for the remainder of the culture period. These data are consistent with our previous observation that DON can inhibit leptin release from human adipocytes and establish that the effect is maintained over a longer culture period. Also, as previously observed, the reduction in leptin release with DON treatment was associated with a decrease in LEP mRNA content, suggesting that hexosamines regulate either LEP gene transcription or mRNA stability.
The findings presented above demonstrate that hexosamine biosynthesis in 3T3-L1 cells regulates leptin production in a manner consistent with that in human sc adipocytes. These cells are therefore a reasonable model system to study the regulation of human LEP promoter activity by hexosamines. To accomplish this goal, 3T3-L1 cells were transfected with a luciferase reporter construct containing the proximal 215 bp (11) of the human LEP gene promoter. Although transfection of adipocytes is in general difficult, an electroporation technique for 3T3-L1 cells has been successfully developed that results in the incorporation of plasmid DNA into 50–70% of differentiated cells (10). Using this technique, we examined the ability of glucose and glucosamine to regulate the activity of the LEP gene promoter. In agreement with previous reports, the proximal promoter region of the LEP gene was sufficient for basal transcriptional activity (11, 17, 18). Addition of 5 mM glucose to the culture medium significantly increased LEP promoter activity 63.0% over that in the absence of glucose. Increasing glucose further to 20 mM did not result in any additional stimulation of the promoter, in agreement with our observations of leptin production from nontransfected cells cultured under similar conditions. These findings thus suggest that a glucose- responsive element is located within the proximal region of the human LEP promoter, in agreement with previous observations for rat (19) and mouse (20) genes.
Two observations support the hypothesis that the promoter response to glucose may be at least in part mediated through hexosamine biosynthesis. The first is that glucosamine significantly increases the activity of the LEP promoter to about the same extent (70% over that in the absence of glucose) as that induced by 5 mM glucose, although this effect takes 24 h longer to achieve. The second observation is that inhibition of GFAT activity with DON attenuates the ability of glucose to increase LEP promoter activity. Taken together, these two findings support a role for UDP-N-acetylglucosamine synthesis in the regulation of the LEP promoter by glucose. Further support for the hypothesis is provided by the recent observation that insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism, but not insulin per se, mediates the effects of insulin to increase the activity of a mouse LEP promoter construct transfected into 3T3-L1 cells (20).
Within the proximal region of the LEP gene promoter are
three Sp1 consensus sequences (GC box) and a C/EBP motif
(11). Mason et al. (12)
demonstrated that the GC box located at -104 to -92 bp is an
important determinant of murine LEP promoter activity. It
has also been suggested that O-glycosylation of Sp1
regulates its transcriptional activity (14). To test
whether hexosamines regulate the LEP promoter through Sp1
acting at this site, point mutations demonstrated by gel shift analysis
to prevent Sp1 binding (12) were introduced within this
consensus sequence. In agreement with the observations by Mason
et al. (12), mutation of the GC box at -104 to
-92 bp significantly reduced basal promoter activity 6-fold
(determined in the absence of glucose); demonstrating that this
Sp1-binding site is an important determinant of LEP promoter
activity in humans as well as rodents. However, the addition of 5
mM glucose to the culture medium for 24 h
induced a 40 ± 7% increase in Sp1-1X promoter activity over that
in the absence of glucose. Further, a 48-h incubation with glucosamine
significantly increased the activity of the mutated Sp1-1X promoter by
57 ± 11%. In both experiments the percent increase in activity
of the mutated promoter was similar to that observed for the nonmutated
promoter. These observations therefore suggest that hexosamines
regulate LEP promoter activity at sites in addition to the
GC box at -104 to -92 bp. There are two other GC boxes in the LEP
promoter, one at -17 to -22 bp and the other at -123 to -128 bp. To
determine whether hexosamines were stimulating LEP promoter
activity through these other GC boxes, we generated promoter constructs
with either two or all three of the GC boxes mutated. The creation of
these additional mutations did not further reduce the basal activity of
the promoter compared with that of Sp1-1X. Despite the introduction of
the additional mutations, both glucose and glucosamine increased the
activity of these promoters to levels not different from that observed
for Sp1-1X. These observations therefore suggest that hexosamines can
regulate the activity of the LEP promoter through actions
that do not require these Sp1-binding sites. One possibility is that
hexosamines may be acting on the mutated promoters through C/EBP
transcription factors, important determinants of gene expression in
adipocytes (21) that have been demonstrated to be
responsive to nutritional manipulation (22). Sp1 has been
demonstrated to alter the amount of C/EBP
in 3T3-L1 adipocytes
through actions on the promoter of this transcription factor
(23). Future experiments will be needed to determine
whether hexosamines regulate LEP promoter activity through
C/EBP or other, as yet, unidentified transcription factors.
Interestingly, treatment with DON did not block the glucose-induced increase in activity of the Sp1-1X promoter as was observed with the nonmutated promoter. One interpretation for this finding is that glucose is activating the mutated promoter through mechanisms that do not involve hexosamine synthesis. This cannot be the complete explanation given the observation that glucosamine also activates the mutated promoter. Alternatively, inhibition of GFAT for 24 h may not be sufficient to completely eliminate all intracellular hexosamine, and less hexosamine may be needed to activate the mutated promoter at sites other than the GC box at -104 to -92 bp. Future experiments will be needed to more fully examine this possibility.
In support of the hypothesis that hexosamines regulate LEP gene transcription through effects on transcription factors was the finding of a modest increase in O-linked glycosylation of Sp1 in cells treated with glucosamine. Although the mechanism through which O-glycosylation alters Sp1-mediated transcriptional events is still not completely understood, it has been suggested that a reduction in O-glycosylation of Sp1 results in increased degradation of the transcription factor by the proteosome, an effect that can be abrogated by incubation with glucosamine (14). In our studies we did not observe any difference in immunodetectable Sp1 protein in 3T3-L1 adipocytes treated with or without glucosamine. An additional possible effect of O-glycosylation of Sp1 is that it regulates the interactions of Sp1 with other transcription factors and the DNA (24). Future experiments will be necessary to determine the exact mechanism(s) through which O-glycosylation regulates Sp1 protein function in adipocytes and whether this is the primary mechanism through which hexosamines regulate LEP gene transcription.
Several limitations in the current study deserve mention. The first is the use of glucosamine and DON to manipulate hexosamine levels. As discussed above, glucosamine may reduce the intracellular ATP content of the adipocyte. DON, as an inhibitor of glutamine transamidases (25), could have altered the activity of enzymes other than GFAT to influence leptin production. However, the results of pharmacological manipulation of hexosamine levels in the current study are in agreement with findings in transgenic animals overexpressing GFAT (4). One other concern is the variability in promoter activity from experiment to experiment, which may be due to a combination of transfection efficiency and the age of the cells transfected. To minimize variability, paired control treatments (i.e. no glucose condition) were performed in each experiment. Finally, although the activity of the LEP promoter in 3T3-L1 cells appears to be less than that in studies using transfected rat adipocytes (12), a lower promoter activity would be in agreement with observations that 3T3-L1 cells synthesize less leptin than primary adipocytes (26).
In summary, the current study demonstrates that leptin release from 3T3-L1 adipocytes can be regulated by hexosamine biosynthesis as previously observed for human sc adipocytes. Further, glucose/hexosamines regulate leptin production through transcriptional mechanisms within the proximal promoter region. Although glucosamine-stimulated hexosamine biosynthesis can induce increases in LEP promoter activity comparable to that produced by glucose, actual leptin secretion is greater in the presence of glucose than glucosamine. These findings suggest that glucose regulates leptin production through mechanisms in addition to hexosamine biosynthesis. Sp1 is important in the regulation of the LEP promoter, but hexosamines may also regulate the promoter through other means. Hexosamines act as an intracellular signal linking glucose metabolism in adipocytes to leptin release.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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Abbreviations: DON, 6-Diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine; GFAT, glutamine:fructose amidotransferase.
Received October 6, 2000.
Accepted for publication September 10, 2001.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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modulates human ob gene
expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:5507–5511 gene expression by metabolic signals in rodent adipocytes.
Endocrinology 140:2938–2947 gene promoter: role in adipocyte
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