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NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY |
Departments of Internal Medicine (G.M., M.Y., L.S.S., R.L.D., J.D.M., K.L.P.), Pharmacology (K.L.P.), and Biochemistry (P.A., J.D.M.), University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390; and University of Mississippi Medical Center (E.G.-S.), Jackson, Mississippi 39216
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. Keith L. Parker, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Room J6.106, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390-8857. E-mail: kparke{at}mednet.swmed.edu
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Abstract |
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Introduction |
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-subunit of glycoprotein hormones, FSH and its receptor, LH and its receptor, the GnRH receptor, and others (reviewed in Ref. 4). In addition to the aforementioned defects, the structure of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH) of SF-1 KO mice was markedly altered, whereas other hypothalamic nuclei appeared to be intact (5, 6). Classical stereotactic lesioning studies revealed the importance of the VMH in the regulation of appetite and body weight. Ventromedial lesions in rats caused hyperphagia and obesity, leading to the proposal that this region of the hypothalamus, most likely in concert with other hypothalamic nuclei, acts as a satiety center (7, 8, 9). However, neither the molecular events causing obesity in ventromedially lesioned rodents nor the precise role of the VMH in this phenotype are fully understood (10).
Body weight in both animals and humans is regulated to balance precisely energy intake and expenditure (reviewed in Refs. 11, 12). A critical mediator of this regulation is leptin, a hormone produced by white adipose tissue (11, 12, 13, 14, 15). The primary hypothalamic site of leptin action is believed to be the arcuate nucleus, although leptin receptors also are expressed in the VMH and the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) (16, 17). Plasma leptin levels are highly correlated with the amount of white adipose tissue in the body, and increased levels of leptin cause responses in the hypothalamus that ultimately decrease feeding and increase energy expenditure. Several other signaling molecules participate in appetite control by the hypothalamus, at least some of which are thought to act downstream of leptin. Orexigenic hypothalamic signals include neuropeptide Y, agouti-related protein, melanin-concentrating hormone, and the orexins, whereas MSH, cocaine-amphetamine-regulated transcript, and CRH suppress appetite (11, 12).
In the present study we characterize the phenotype of SF-1 KO mice during postnatal development and in adult life. These SF-1 KO mice become markedly obese, establishing them as a novel, monogenic model of late-onset obesity. Although the precise role of SF-1 remains to be defined, the SF-1 KO mice raise the possibility that impaired SF-1 function in humans causes obesity and provide a novel system for exploring the role of the VMH in weight regulation.
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Materials and Methods |
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SF-1 heterozygous mice were mated to produce homozygous SF-1 KO offspring. All newborn pups (WT and SF-1 KO) were injected daily with 50 µl of a corticosteroid cocktail in olive oil (400 µg/ml hydrocortisone, 40 ng/ml dexamethasone, and 25 ng/ml fludrocortisone acetate; all from Sigma, St. Louis, MO). Mice were genotyped by PCR assay of tail DNA on d 6 or 7 after birth as previously described (3). Immediately after genotyping, some WT littermates were used as a source of adrenal transplants. After death, the WT adrenal glands were excised, washed in ice-cold PBS, and transferred into ice-cold PBS containing 100 pg/ml fibroblast growth factor (Sigma). A small transdermal puncture was made in the subaxillary region of SF-1 KO pups with a 20-gauge needle, two adrenal glands were placed sc using sharp watchmaker’s forceps, and the skin was closed. WT (not operated) and SF-1 KO mice were injected daily with corticosteroid cocktail on the first 2 d after surgery, followed by a 1-d break. Subsequently, steroid injections were given to all mice on d 14, 17, and 21, and they received no further steroid treatment after weaning at 3 wk.
To determine the possible effect of sex steroid deficiency on weight gain, some WT mice were ovariectomized (OVX). Immediately after weaning (and before the onset of ovarian steroidogenesis), mice were anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine (1.25 mg/animal; Ketaset, Fort Dodge Animal Health, Fort Dodge, IA), xylazine (0.125 mg/animal; X-ject SA, Burns Veterinary Supply, Rockville Center, NY), and acepromazine (0.025 mg/animal; Aceproject, Burns Veterinary Supply). Ovaries were excised through a small abdominal incision that was subsequently sutured. As an additional control, the adrenal glands of two WT mice were removed and then autotransplanted at 3 wk of age. These mice received three daily injections of corticosteroid cocktail (as described above) before surgery and steroid injections on d 1, 3, and 6 after the surgery. Mice were anesthetized as described above, and adrenal glands were excised through an incision on the back. The adrenal glands were then transplanted sc into the same mice during the surgery in a manner identical to that used for the SF-1 KO mice.
Mice were killed at 6 months of age using anesthesia as described above, followed by cervical dislocation. Some mice were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde. Whole brains were dissected from the skull, postfixed for 1 h in 4% paraformaldehyde, and washed overnight in 20% sucrose in PBS. Whole brains were embedded in Tissue-Tek (Sakura Finetek, Torrance, CA), frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at -80 C until further use.
For magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analyses of body fat composition, mice were anesthetized as described above and analyzed in an MRI device (Philips Medical Systems) as previously described (20). MRI data were used to determine lean body mass and to calculate relative food intake.
Histological analyses
Coronal sections of brain (25 µm) were cut with a cryotome, and sections were stained with cresyl violet using standard procedures. Immunohistochemical staining was performed essentially as previously described (21) using rabbit polyclonal antiserum raised against rat ER (Upstate Biotechnology, Inc., Lake Placid, NY). No signal above background was observed in sections in which the primary antiserum was replaced with nonimmune rabbit serum. An in situ hybridization probe for tubby was obtained by RT-PCR of whole brain RNA using primers that amplified a 379-bp sequence (5' primer, 5'-CTCCAGCAGCATGAGCTTT-3'; 3' primer, 5'-GGTCCACAGAGATGAGGTAA-3'), followed by cloning into pCRII (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA). These sequences do not include those encoding the highly conserved carboxyl-terminal region of tubby, thus minimizing cross-hybridization with other members of the tubby family. Probes were prepared using T7 (sense) and SP6 (antisense) RNA polymerases in the presence of digoxigenin-labeled UTP (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, IN). In situ hybridizations with cRNA probes were performed essentially as previously described (22), and bound digoxigenin-labeled probe was detected according to the supplier’s protocol. No signal above background was detected in sections hybridized with sense probes. Photomicrographs were taken with a Nikon Optiphot 2 microscope (Melville, NY).
Hormone assays
All blood hormone levels were measured using standard RIA procedures. In all cases, mice were bled in the same rooms in which they were housed to minimize stress, and samples were obtained as soon as possible after entering the room. ACTH in EDTA plasma was measured using an RIA kit from Nichols Institute Diagnostics (San Juan Capistrano, CA) following the protocol supplied with the kit. Inter- and intraassay variations were 3.2% and 6.8%, respectively. Corticosterone levels in heparinized plasma were measured by RIA as previously described (23), with inter- and intraassay variations of 7% and 4.8%, respectively. Plasma leptin and insulin were measured using RIA kits (Linco Research, Inc., St. Charles, MO). Inter- and intraassay variations for leptin were 5.7% and 4.6%, respectively. Plasma glucose was measured with a HemoCue glucose analyzer (HemoCue AB, Angelholm, Sweden).
Statistical analyses
Data from each experiment were subjected to ANOVA to identify statistically significant differences between groups. Subgroup comparisons between means for each group were then made using the variance from the experiment as a whole as the measure of error. At least three, but normally more, data points for each group were used in all statistical analyses.
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Results |
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, A and B, histological sections of hypothalami of adult SF-1 KO mice closely resembled those reported previously in newborn SF-1 KO mice; the distinct cluster of cells that normally comprise the VMH was not present, whereas the arcuate nucleus and DMH appeared intact. To explore more specifically the effect of the SF-1 KO on the VMH, we examined the expression of two markers that delineate distinct populations of VMH neurons. ER is expressed specifically in neurons that reside in the ventrolateral region of the VMH, and we previously used ER immunoreactivity to define the effect of the SF-1 KO in mouse embryos and newborn pups (22). As in these previous studies, ER-positive cells in the adult SF-1 KO mice were not seen in their usual position in the ventrolateral quadrant of the VMH, but were readily detected in the WT sections (Fig. 1, C and D). Significantly, comparable numbers of ER-positive cells were observed in the closely adjacent arcuate nucleus, documenting the specificity of the VMH defect. Moreover, as described in newborn SF-1 KO mice (22), the medial-lateral distribution of ER-positive cells was apparently altered such that some cells were clustered adjacent to the third ventricle.
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, E and F), the distribution and number of tubby-positive cells were altered considerably in SF-1 KO mice. This altered expression was most striking in the region where the VMH is normally found, contrasting with the relatively preserved tubby expression in the adjacent arcuate nucleus (Fig. 1) and the DMH (data not shown). These results establish that the absence of SF-1 permanently affects the hypothalamic distribution of two different markers of VMH neurons, suggesting that the VMH defect described previously persists in adult SF-1 KO mice.
Adrenal transplants restore normal corticosteroid levels in SF-1 KO mice
To assess the function of the transplanted adrenal glands, mice were bled at either 1000 or at 1800 h (peak), and plasma corticosterone and ACTH were measured (Table 1). At both 10 wk and 6 months of age, the hormone levels at 1800 h were similar in all three groups (WT, OVX WT, and SF-1 KO). Although the sample size was smaller, comparable corticosterone levels were seen in samples obtained at 1000 h. These values for both WT and SF-1 KO mice were lower than the 1800 h results, suggesting that diurnal rhythm is maintained in adrenal-transplanted SF-1 KO mice; these differences, however, did not achieve statistical significance, precluding any definitive statements about circadian rhythm in the SF-1 KO mice. Collectively, these results suggest that the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in these mice functions normally. In particular, the ACTH levels in SF-1 KO mice did not differ from those in WT mice, indicating that their corticosterone levels were not elevated sufficiently to suppress their ACTH levels. Thus, the possibility that weight regulation in SF-1 KO mice is affected by primary corticosterone excess is extremely remote.
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, weights were comparable in all groups of mice from weaning until 8 wk of age, when significant differences in body weight first became apparent. This weight difference progressed such that SF-1 KO mice at 6 months of age weighed almost twice as much as WT littermates (50.5 ± 1.2 vs. 29.3 ± 0.8 g in WT mice; P < 0.001). The differences in weight did not reflect increased linear growth, as body lengths were similar in all groups of mice (
10 cm naso-anal length), suggesting, rather, that SF-1 KO mice might have increased adiposity. Consistent with this model (Fig. 2), MRI analyses at 6 months of age revealed markedly increased body fat in SF-1 KO mice (42 ± 1.3% body fat; n = 4) relative to WT mice (20 ± 1.3% body fat; n = 3).
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and aromatase KO mice, however, body weight and adiposity in OVX WT females were significantly less than those in SF-1 KO mice, arguing strongly that a lack of sex steroids alone does not account for the near doubling of weight seen in SF-1 KO mice. The weights of two WT mice that were adrenalectomized and then given adrenal autotransplants were comparable to those of WT mice (30.2 and 29.6 g), strongly suggesting that the adrenal transplantation protocol itself does not cause the obesity. In the absence of demonstrable perturbations in the HPA axis or comparable effects of ovariectomy, our results implicate the alterations in VMH structure as the predominant cause of obesity in SF-1 KO mice. One potential explanation for the increased weight of SF-1 KO mice is that they eat more. From 4–8 wk of age, food consumption did not differ significantly among the groups [4.1 ± 0.2 g/d in WT mice (n = 7), 4.0 ± 0.2 g in OVX WT mice (n = 5), and 4.2 ± 0.2 g in SF-1 KO mice (n = 5); mean ± SE]. Thereafter, food consumption increased in SF-1 KO mice (5.0 ± 0.2 g/d at 20 wk of age), whereas it remained relatively constant in WT mice (4.2 ± 0.1 g/d at 20 wk; P < 0.05). However, the differences in relative food intake disappeared when the MRI data were used to adjust for lean body mass. Thus, at 20 wk of age, the food intake per d/g (lean body mass)3/4 was 0.39 ± 0.02 in SF-1 KO mice (n = 3), 0.40 ± 0.01 in WT mice (n = 3), and 0.37 ± 0.02 in OVX WT mice (n = 3). This finding suggests that increased food intake is only one component of the obesity in SF-1 KO mice.
Given that the hyperphagia in SF-1 KO mice largely disappears after correcting for lean body mass, an alternative explanation for their obesity is decreased energy expenditure. In support of this model, analyses of SF-1 KO mice at 7 wk, before they became overtly obese, revealed a 75% decrease in wheel-turning activity relative to WT mice, a decrease that persisted at 6 months of age (Fig. 3). Although these data ultimately should be refined using metabolic cages to determine total energy consumption and photosensor beam breaks to assess general exploratory activity, these results strongly implicate decreased energy utilization as the primary basis for the late-onset obesity in SF-1 KO mice.
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). Although glucose levels were similar in all three groups of mice (Table 1), insulin levels were elevated significantly in both SF-1 KO and WT OVX mice (P < 0.05 compared with WT mice), and their glucose/insulin ratios were reduced significantly relative to those in WT mice (P < 0.05). These findings indicate that SF-1 KO mice and WT OVX are markedly insulin resistant despite the absence of overt diabetes. |
Discussion |
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In the present study SF-1 KO mice were kept alive after birth by transplanting adrenal glands from WT littermates. One concern in these experiments is the function of transplanted adrenals, as glucocorticoids have well known effects on appetite. For example, patients with endogenous or exogenous glucocorticoid excess frequently become obese, and glucocorticoid excess in experimental animals stimulates feeding, reduces thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue, and inhibits leptin action in the brain (30, 31, 32). It is highly unlikely that the obesity in SF-1 KO mice results from the corticosteroid replacement regimen, because the WT mice also received steroid injections in the early postnatal period, and steroid administration was limited to the first 3 wk of age. Moreover, we have never observed obesity in KO mice lacking the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein that received a similar corticosteroid replacement regimen (Hasegawa, T., and K. Parker, unpublished observation).
To address the concern that the transplanted adrenals overproduce glucocorticoids, we monitored corticosterone levels at different times of day (presumed peak and trough levels) and found no differences between WT and SF-1 KO mice. In addition, ACTH levels did not differ significantly between WT and SF-1 KO mice, further suggesting that the HPA axis in these mice functions normally. Finally, body weight was normal in two WT mice that were adrenalectomized and given adrenal autotransplants at 3 wk of age. These findings suggest strongly that the obesity in SF-1 KO mice results from alterations in the VMH rather than excessive corticosterone resulting from the steroid replacement regimen or perturbed function of the transplanted adrenal glands. It remains possible, however, that SF-1 KO mice have subtle alterations in their patterns of glucocorticoid secretion, as perturbations in circadian rhythm have been reported in VMH-lesioned rats (33, 34). If similar variations in circadian rhythm ultimately are found in SF-1 KO mice, they may provide a novel model system for exploring the roles of this orphan nuclear receptor in maintaining normal rhythmicity of the HPA axis.
Sex steroids are the other steroid class known to affect body weight regulation, and ovarian agenesis renders the SF-1 KO mice completely deficient in sex steroids. Both ER- and aromatase KO mice exhibit an obesity phenotype that somewhat resembles that described here. Shared features include the relatively delayed onset of obesity, decreased activity, and marked hepatic steatosis associated with increased lipid deposits in brown adipose tissue (25, 26) (Majdic, G., unpublished observation). However, other features suggest that the marked obesity in SF-1 KO mice differs considerably from that seen in mice with deficient sex steroid action. First, the increased weight and adiposity in SF-1 KO mice exceeded considerably those seen in ER and aromatase KO mice or in WT mice whose ovaries were removed at 21 d (Fig. 2). This finding argues that the absence of ovarian steroids is but a small part of the obesity phenotype in SF-1 KO mice. In addition, SF-1 KO mice exhibit decreased activity at a much earlier age than aromatase KO mice (Fig. 3). Collectively, these phenotypic disparities highlight important differences in the mechanisms of obesity in SF-1 KO mice vs. those in mice with genetic deficiencies in estrogen biosynthesis or action.
A number of genetic models of obesity in mice have been characterized at the molecular level (reviewed in Ref. 35), and their obesity phenotypes establish distinct roles for various components of the hypothalamic circuitry in energy regulation. The most dramatic obesity phenotypes are seen in ob and db mice, which have mutations in leptin or its receptor, respectively. These mice gain weight excessively from very early life, ultimately weighing up to 80 g, and exhibit a compound endocrine phenotype that includes abnormal reproduction and production of sex steroids. Leptin is secreted by white adipose tissue and correlates closely with total fat deposits in the body (15, 36). In the hypothalamus, the leptin receptor is expressed most highly in the arcuate nucleus, but lower levels of expression also are seen in the DMH, VMH, and paraventricular nucleus (16, 17). Moreover, leptin accumulates predominantly in the arcuate nucleus, where it modulates the expression of neuropeptide Y and MSH; thus, the arcuate nucleus has been viewed as the primary site of leptin action (36). Leptin was elevated significantly in SF-1 KO mice, suggesting that SF-1 KO mice, like rodents with lesions of the VMH, are resistant to leptin. We currently do not know whether this effect in SF-1 KO mice reflects impaired leptin action in the VMH or disturbed signaling from other nuclei secondary to the VMH alterations.
Several other mouse genetic models of obesity disrupt various components of a hypothalamic melanocortin signaling network. Yellow agouti mice, which have a mutation that causes ectopic expression of a protein that antagonizes the melanocortin-4 receptor in the hypothalamus, develop obesity and increased body size by about 5 wk of age (37). A similar obese phenotype is observed in KO mice lacking the melanocortin-4 receptor (38). Fat mice have a mutation in carboxypeptidase E, an enzyme that contributes to the conversion POMC to MSH (35). Presumably, the altered delivery of MSH in fat mice leads to impaired signaling through melanocortin receptors and thereby alters body weight regulation. Finally, another melanocortin receptor, the melanocortin-3 receptor, is associated with an obesity phenotype that closely resembles that of the SF-1 KO mice. The melanocortin-3 receptor is expressed primarily in the arcuate nucleus and VMH, and melanocortin-3 receptor KO mice have a delayed onset of obesity that results from reduced activity rather than hyperphagia (39) (Butler, A., unpublished observations).
The second genetic obesity model that closely parallels SF-1 KO mice is the tubby mouse mutation. Both tubby and SF-1 KO mice become obese by approximately 8–10 wk of age, ultimately weighing almost twice as much as WT littermates (Ref. 40 and this report). Temperature regulation is not affected, and levels of corticosterone, which are markedly elevated in ob and db mice, are normal. The gene responsible for the tubby phenotype is a member of a novel gene family that is expressed in the hypothalamus (VMH, DMH, paraventricular nucleus, and arcuate nucleus), as well as in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex (24). Cell culture studies have shown that tubby, upon receptor-mediated activation of G proteins, translocates from the plasma membrane to the nucleus (41), presumably activating the transcription of as yet to be defined target genes to prevent apoptosis (42). The altered expression of tubby in the VMH of SF-1 KO mice appears to be relatively specific, as tubby expression was reportedly normal in ob, db, and melanocortin-4 receptor KO mice (43). Based on these findings, we speculate that alterations in tubby expression in the VMH may account at least in part for the similar phenotypes in tubby and SF-1 KO mice. Others (41) have likened the tubby phenotype to that of KO mice lacking the 5-HT2c serotonin receptor gene (44), and further studies are needed to compare and contrast the phenotypes in these different obesity models and to define the molecular mechanisms that underlie their delayed onset obesity.
In summary, the present study establishes that adult SF-1 KO mice, with their structural and functional abnormalities of VMH neurons, exhibit relatively severe, late-onset obesity. The obesity in SF-1 KO mice results predominantly from decreased energy expenditure rather than hyperphagia; this result differs from data originally obtained in rodents with lesions of the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus and is consistent with studies that have targeted more specifically the VMH while preserving the arcuate nucleus (10). The development of strategies for tissue-specific disruption of SF-1 (21) and for using SF-1 regulatory sequences to target transgene expression to the VMH (Stallings, N., and K. Parker, unpublished observation) will provide a powerful approach to explore the roles of SF-1 and the VMH in energy homeostasis.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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Abbreviations: DMH, Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus; HPA, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; KO, knockout; MC3-R, melanocortin-3 receptor; MC4-R, melanocortin-4 receptor; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; OVX, ovariectomized; SF-1, steroidogenic factor 1; VMH, ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus; WT, wild-type.
Received August 20, 2001.
Accepted for publication October 25, 2001.
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References |
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knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:12729–12734
-aminobutyric acid to the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus during embryonic development. J Comp Neurol 405:88–98[CrossRef][Medline]
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; n = 10), WT (
; n = 8), and OVX WT (
; n = 6) mice at different ages (mean ± SE). Lower panel, Transverse MRI scans of whole mice show striking increased white adipose tissue fat (light gray color) in SF-1 KO mice relative to WT mice or WT OVX mice.
) and 6 months (
) of age were monitored by spontaneous wheel turning in SF-1 KO, WT, and OVX WT mice as described in Materials and Methods. The activity in SF-1 KO mice was significantly lower than that in WT or OVX WT mice (mean ± SE; ***, P < 0.001).