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Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Georgia 30912
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Charles L. Chaffin, Ph.D., Department of Physiology, Medical College of Georgia, CA2098, 1120 15th Street, Augusta, Georgia 30912. E-mail: cchaffin{at}mail.mcg.edu.
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Introduction |
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In essentially all cell types, cell cycle control involves the complex orchestration of a number of core stimulatory and inhibitory components (6). Extracellular mitogenic stimulation is mediated by the D-type cyclins (D1, D2, and D3), which associate and form complexes with the cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) Cdk4 or Cdk6. Thus, although the cyclin D/Cdk4,6 complexes control entry into G1 phase, regulators of entry and progression through S phase are cyclin E/Cdk2 complexes. The aforementioned cyclin/Cdk complexes, once activated, phosphorylate retinoblastoma (RB) and its family members, p107 and p130, thus releasing sequestered E2F transcription factors, allowing transcription of genes required for cell cycle progression (7). In contrast to cyclin D expression, which is induced by mitogenic signals, cyclin E is expressed periodically, with maximal cyclin E/Cdk2 activity occurring in late G1 and at the G1-S boundary. The central importance of cyclin E/Cdk2 has been established through the observation that overexpression of cyclin E obviates the need for cyclin D/Cdk4,6 and can shorten the length of G1 (8). Inhibitory components of the cell cycle include the Cdk inhibitors (CKIs), which bind and inhibit the activity of cyclin-Cdk, contributing to cell cycle arrest. Two families of inhibitors are currently known: the Cip/Kip family (p21, p27, and p57) and the INK4 family (p16, p15, p18, and p19) (9).
Luteal cells derived from antecedent granulosa cells have very low levels of proliferation. For example, Rao et al. (3) showed a marked decline in proliferative activity of granulosa-derived luteal cells from rats 24 h after administration of LH. Quiescence of luteal cells in mice is associated with decreased expression of Cdk2 and cyclin D1 and increased levels of p27 and cyclin D3 (10). Similarly, studies in the nonhuman primate ovary during the early luteal phase showed that 3ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-positive cells are essentially nonproliferative (11). Examination of proliferation in the human CL indicates that the majority of cycling cells are stromal, primarily vascular, with only 5–15% of luteal cells staining positive for Ki-67 by the end of the early luteal phase (12). Interestingly, several studies in humans and primates suggest that periovulatory progesterone is a causative factor in granulosa cell cycle arrest (13, 14, 15), whereas others suggest that progesterone plays a later role by maintaining quiescence of granulosa-lutein cells (16).
Although the aforementioned studies have been primarily long-interval (>24 h after an ovulatory stimulus) studies, a few studies have examined granulosa cell proliferation at much earlier and shorter time intervals. Robker and Richards (4) suggested that proliferation of rat granulosa cells is arrested, and cyclin D2 expression decreased, within 4 h of an ovulatory human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulus, consistent with the hypothesis that rat granulosa cells are irreversibly programmed to become luteal cells within 5–7 h after an ovulatory stimulus (17). However, Hirshfield et al. (18) and Agarwal et al. (19) both found that hCG treatment induces a transient increase in the proportion of rat granulosa cells in S phase. Importantly, the expression of c-myc increases in rat granulosa cells after hCG treatment, suggesting that myc-mediated signaling may play an important role in periovulatory events (19, 20). In rhesus macaques undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation, granulosa cells express significantly less Ki-67 (a marker of proliferating cells) within 12 h of an ovulatory hCG bolus (5). However, this same study also reported an hCG-induced increase in cyclin D2 mRNA and unchanged cyclin E mRNA, whereas cyclin B1 mRNA levels were reduced 12 h after hCG. Furthermore, in vitro luteinization of macaque granulosa cells is associated with transient increases in DNA synthesis and myc expression, suggesting that hCG stimulates additional proliferation before cell cycle arrest occurs (21).
The goal of the present study was to establish the temporal dynamics of granulosa cell proliferation after an ovulatory stimulus to pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG)-primed immature rats. It is hypothesized that hCG stimulates a limited period of granulosa cell proliferation before the onset of cell cycle arrest.
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Materials and Methods |
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Animals and tissue collection
All animal procedures were approved by the Medical College of Georgia Animal Care and Use Committee and were in accordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide to the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Immature (21-d-old) Sprague Dawley rats obtained from Harlan (Madison, WI) were kept in a 12-h light/dark regimen with food and water ad libitum. On postnatal d 26–27, rats were hormonally stimulated with 10 IU PMSG followed 48 h later by 10 IU hCG. Animals were killed at specific time points before (0 h) or up to 12 h after an ovulatory hCG bolus. At the time of killing, trunk blood was collected and serum obtained by centrifugation at 400 x g for 10 min. Ovaries were harvested into cold DMEM/F-12 medium, shed using 25-gauge needles, and then filtered through 150-µm-pore nylon mesh (Sefar America, Inc., Depew, NY) to collect granulosa cells (22). Enriched granulosa cells were pelleted and frozen for isolation of RNA and protein or prepared for flow cytometric analysis.
Flow cytometry
Isolated granulosa cells were washed (2000 rpm for 10 min at 4 C) two times in ice-cold fluorescence-activated cell-sorting (FACS) sample buffer (0.1% glucose/PBS) and resuspended in 100–200 µl FACS sample buffer to obtain a single-cell suspension. Cells were fixed by drop-wise addition of 1 ml ice-cold 70% ethanol while vortexing. Ethanol-fixed cells were stored at 4 C for at least 24 h before propidium iodide (PI) staining. Cells were centrifuged, all but 100–200 µl of ethanol removed, and then treated with 1 ml of PI staining solution (0.1 mg/ml PI and 0.5 mg/ml RNase A in FACS sample buffer). Stained cells were held at room temperature for at least 1 h before FACS analysis. Immediately before analysis, cells were passed through a Falcon 35-µm nylon mesh cell strainer cap (BD Biosciences, Bedford, MA) to remove aggregated cells. Flow cytofluorometric measurements of forward scatter, side scatter, and PI fluorescence were made using a three-color FACSCalibur flow cytometer (Becton Dickinson, San Jose, CA) to determine DNA content. Single cells were chosen for DNA content analysis by gating PI fluorescence on a graph of PI pulse area vs. PI pulse width. Data acquisition was performed using CellQuest (version 3.3) software and data analysis with ModFit LT for Macintosh (version 2.0) software (Verity Software House, Inc., Topsham, ME).
BrdU uptake and immunohistochemistry
Immature rats were hormonally stimulated as above and injected (ip) with 5 mg/kg BrdU 2 h before killing, at which time they were perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde. Ovaries and spleens were removed and stored overnight in 4% paraformaldehyde, paraffin embedded, and sectioned at 3 µm. Sections were deparaffinized and rehydrated in toluene and sequential ethanol washes, respectively. For BrdU immunohistochemistry, slides were trypsinized and treated with HCl for denaturation of the DNA. Sections were then incubated in a 1:100 dilution of sheep polyclonal anti-BrdU for 2 h at room temperature, rinsed in 10 mM PBS, and then incubated in a 1:1000 dilution of Alexa Fluor 488 donkey antisheep (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) for 1 h at room temperature. Adjacent sections were stained for 10 min with hematoxylin (Vector Laboratories, Inc., Burlingame, CA) and for 5 min with Eosin (Sigma) and then dehydrated, cleared with Citrisolv (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA), and coverslipped. For TIMP-1 immunohistochemistry, deparaffinized, rehydrated slides were pretreated with Target Retrieval Solution (pH 6.0; Dako Corp., Carpinteria, CA.) using a steamer (Black and Decker rice steamer), followed by a distilled water rinse. Endogenous peroxidase was quenched with 0.3% H2O2 in distilled water for 5 min followed by distilled water for 2 min. Slides were incubated in Power Block (Biogenex Laboratories Inc., San Ramon, CA.), rinsed in distilled water, and placed in 1x PBS for 5 min, followed by anti-TIMP-1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) at 1:100 for 1 h at room temperature and then peroxidase-conjugated AffinityPure secondary donkey antirabbit for 1 h, and rinsed in two changes of PBS. Detection was with diaminobenzidine substrate (Dako). Slides were counterstained with hematoxylin (Richard-Allan Scientific, Kalamazoo, MI) and visualized using the Olympus IX71 microscope and the MicroFire Imaging System (Olympus).
RNA isolation and RT-PCR
RNA was isolated using the RNAqueous-Micro Isolation Kit (Ambion, Austin, TX) and reverse transcribed, and 20 ng cDNA was used for multiplex real-time PCR (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA) using the 60 S ribosomal protein L32 (RPL32) as an internal standard (23). Primers and probes were designed using Primer Express Software (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA), and sequences are listed in Table 1
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Cdk2 activity
Protein was isolated before or after hCG using a commercially available lysis buffer (Upstate). Lysates were immunoprecipitated with anti-Cdk2 (2 µg) for 2 h at 4 C, followed by protein A-agarose overnight at 4 C. Precipitates were washed twice in lysis buffer and once in kinase buffer (Upstate). The resulting Cdk2 immunocomplexes were incubated for 1 h at 37 C in kinase buffer, 10 µCi [32P]ATP (Perkin-Elmer Life Sciences, Inc., Boston, MA), and 10 µg HIIIS. 32P-labeled HIIIS was visualized using PAGE on a Typhoon 8600 phosphorimager (Amersham, Piscataway, NJ). The gel was then stained with Coomassie blue, and total HIIIS was used as a loading control.
RIA
Serum progesterone concentrations were determined using the Coat-A-Count progesterone RIA kit per the manufacturer’s specifications (Diagnostic Products Corp., Los Angeles, CA).
Statistical analysis
All data are presented as mean ± SEM. Bartlett’s 
2 was used to test for heterogeneity of variance, and data were subsequently logarithmically transformed. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Student Newman-Keuls’ means test. Differences were considered significant if P < 0.05. Time points with different superscript letters or symbols were significantly different.
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Results |
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). Progesterone receptor (PR) mRNA similarly increased (P < 0.05) within 2 h of hCG, with peak expression 4 h after hCG followed by a sharp decline. Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and ADAMTS-1 mRNA also showed the expected expression profile after hCG (26, 27, 28).
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). The percentage of granulosa cells in G0/G1 did not increase significantly until 12 h after hCG. Similarly, a significant decrease (45%; P < 0.05) in the percentage of cells in S phase relative to pre-hCG (0 h) levels was not observed until 12 h after hCG. Interestingly, the percentage of cells in G2/M compared with 0 h hCG increased significantly (177%; P < 0.05) 8 h after hCG before returning to pre-hCG levels at 12 h after hCG.
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depicts localization of BrdU uptake before and after hCG and is representative of three animals per time point. Pre- and periovulatory follicles were determined on the basis of a large, well-developed antrum. Uptake of BrdU staining increased 24 h after PMSG (Fig. 3, B and C). An apparent decline in the number of BrdU-positive mural granulosa cells was observed starting 2 h after hCG, although proliferation of mural granulosa cells was variable until 6–8 h after hCG, with some follicles expressing very low levels of BrdU uptake soon after hCG and others with continued mural proliferation through 8 h (Fig. 3). BrdU uptake in mural granulosa cells was nearly absent in all follicles by 10 h after hCG. However, in some periovulatory follicles during early time points after hCG, and in nearly all of the latter time points through 10 h after hCG, BrdU-positive cells were localized to the cumulus and cumulus stalk region. Adjacent sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin did not contain substantial numbers of pyknotic nuclei, and thus there was not evidence of hCG-induced atresia. Also, to verify that large antral follicles after hCG luteinized, TIMP-1 expression was determined (29). TIMP-1 increased in all large, antral follicles after hCG, indicating the presence of luteinizing follicles (Fig. 3).
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depicts mRNA levels and Figure 5 shows Western blot analysis of key G1/S-phase genes. Although there was a slight downward trend in the expression of cyclin D2 mRNA beginning at 4 h after administration of hCG, it was not reduced significantly until 12 h after hCG (2.5-fold; P < 0.05). Protein expression of cyclin D2, however, did not change after hCG. Interestingly, mRNA levels of both of the cyclin D2 partners (Cdk4 and Cdk6) increased 6 h after hCG; Cdk4 mRNA remained elevated throughout the 12-h interval (1.7-fold; P < 0.05), whereas Cdk6 mRNA expression was transient, peaking at 6–8 h after hCG (5-fold; P < 0.05). The expression of Cdk4 protein did not change after hCG, whereas Cdk6 protein was nearly undetectable by Western blot before and after hCG (data not presented). Neither cyclin E mRNA nor Cdk2 mRNA levels were altered after hCG. The expression of cyclin E protein increased 6, 8, and 12 h after hCG (2-fold; P < 0.05), whereas values at 10 h were not significantly different from any other time point. There was a tendency for Cdk2 protein to be decreased 2–4 h after hCG (P = 0.11), followed by a trend toward a transient increase at 6 h (P = 0.06). Consistent with these observations of cyclin E and Cdk2 expression, the activity of Cdk2 was reduced 4 h after hCG, and a small increase in activity was observed 6–8 h after hCG (Fig. 6).
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Discussion |
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Before hCG, approximately 10% of granulosa cells are in S phase. This is consistent with previous reports using normally cycling adult rats and immature animals undergoing hormonal stimulation (18) and indicates that a relatively small fraction of granulosa cells in preovulatory follicles transit S phase at any one time. Before an ovulatory stimulus, 86% of cells are in G0/G1. Although FACS analysis does not differentiate the two, we hypothesize that most, if not all, of these cells are in G1. First, these cells most likely express gonadotropin and growth factor receptors (30) and are therefore exposed to trophic stimulation. Second, in rhesus monkeys undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation, 50% of granulosa cells in pre-hCG follicles express Ki-67 (5). Ki-67 is expressed in G1/S/G2/M but not G0 cells (31), so this estimation of high levels of proliferation may be based primarily on G1 cells rather than S, G2, or M. Third, Chaffkin et al. (14, 15) were able to modulate progesterone levels in cultured human granulosa-lutein cells to reinitiate proliferation, suggesting that these cells are arrested in G1 rather than G0. It is currently unknown what prevents more than 10% of preovulatory granulosa cells from transiting the G1/S-phase boundary, but could reflect subsets of granulosa cells (e.g. basal vs. antral) with an inherently slow growth rate, or perhaps a mechanistic block before the G1 restriction point.
The proportion of granulosa cells in G0/G1 or S phase does not change until 12 h after hCG. Although it is possible that this represents poor hormonal stimulation, multiple markers of luteinization indicate a robust response to hCG. Oonk et al. (17) suggested that cellular reorganization leading to luteinization is complete 5–7 h after hCG; thus in rats, cell cycle arrest is not temporally coordinated with luteinization. The uncoupling of cell cycle arrest and terminal differentiation has been proposed in several models, including p27–/– mice, in which granulosa cells continue to proliferate but are otherwise normal (32). In contrast, completion of luteinization and cell cycle arrest in primate granulosa cells are more closely temporally linked, although no evidence exists for a causal relationship (5). It is possible that granulosa cells from all species require some minimum amount of time to arrest, i.e. more than 12 h, although this hypothesis is untested. However, Hirshfield et al. (18) demonstrated in rats an increase in the proportion of S-phase granulosa cells 5 h after an ovulatory stimulus. Furthermore, Agarwal et al. (19) found an increase in BrdU uptake 4 h after hCG in isolated rat granulosa cells. Although the current study did not detect a clear increase in S phase after hCG, a transient rise in the proportion of granulosa cells in G2/M occurs 8 h after hCG. It is possible that this reflects a final round of proliferation caused by hCG or, alternatively, that hCG can synchronize granulosa cells scattered near late G1/early S to finish the cell cycle together. It is clear, however, that hCG does not induce a rapid, synchronized arrest of granulosa cell proliferation, but rather a much slower, more subtle decline.
Because the FACS data used granulosa cells from all follicles in an ovary, including preantral follicles, it is impossible to assure that post-hCG S-phase cells stem from periovulatory follicles. In addition, it is not possible to reliably isolate granulosa cells for FACS around and after ovulation (i.e. >12 h after hCG); thus FACS is not useful for later time points. Uptake of the thymidine analog BrdU was used to localize proliferation during the periovulatory interval. Although an ovulatory stimulus elicits a general decline in proliferation of mural granulosa cells, substantial follicle to follicle variability exists. This variability may in part reconcile the fact that the proportion of S-phase cells measured by FACS analysis does not decline until 12 h after hCG. Given the existing data set, it is hypothesized that mural granulosa cells in most follicles exit the cell cycle by 4–6 h after hCG, although proliferation in some follicles continues up to 10 h. This variability of proliferation exists within individual ovaries, suggesting that the response of mural granulosa cells to an ovulatory stimulus is not predicated on the endocrine status of the animal, but rather can be attributed to the individual follicle, and may be due to several factors, notably the position of the follicle in the ovary and/or the relative level of follicular development. In contrast to mural granulosa cells, granulosa cells in the cumulus and cumulus stalk region of nearly all follicles continue to proliferate for 10 h after hCG, raising the possibility that cumulus proliferation during the periovulatory interval is very tightly regulated by the ovulatory gonadotropin stimulus.
The differences between mural and cumulus proliferation suggest that the mechanisms of cell cycle control are distinct between the two populations of cells. It seems likely that post-hCG proliferation of mural cells reflects the completion of a round of division initiated before the hCG rather than hCG-induced passage across the S-phase boundary. The continued proliferation of cumulus cells 10 h after hCG raises the possibility that these cells undergo an additional round of proliferation. Although the mitogenic stimulus for this proliferation remains unknown, it could be via the TGF-ß family growth factors such as bone morphogenetic protein-15 and growth differentiation factor-9 (33, 34, 35), or epidermal growth factor family members (36). It has recently been reported that growth differentiation factor-9 is expressed in macaque periovulatory follicles (37), and thus it is possible that hCG induces the oocyte to initiate a final burst of proliferation in the region of the cumulus complex via the TGFß family. It is currently unclear why cumulus cells proliferate in response to an ovulatory stimulus, or even if this is necessary for ovulation and luteinization. However, two rounds of proliferation have been shown to be essential to terminal differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes into mature adipocytes (38). It thus seems likely that hCG-stimulated granulosa cell proliferation is essential for normal ovulation and luteinization to occur, and may be related to cumulus expansion, defects in which have been shown to decrease ovulation efficiency and fertilization (39, 40).
To better understand the temporal cell cycle dynamics of granulosa cells during the periovulatory interval, mRNA and protein levels of some positive cell cycle regulators responsible for G1- to S-phase transition were determined. Cyclin D2 mRNA levels are not reduced significantly until 12 h after hCG, although there is a downward trend beginning at 4 h after hCG. In contrast, there is no indication of changes in cyclin D2 protein levels after hCG. It has been reported that both cyclin D2 mRNA and protein decline precipitously 4 h after hCG (4), although more recent data in growing follicles suggest that changes in granulosa cell proliferation are not driven by changes in cyclin D2 expression (41). In contrast, both Cdk4 and Cdk6 mRNA increase after hCG. Although levels of Cdk6 protein are very low before and after hCG (current study and Ref. 41), Cdk4 may have an important non-cell-cycle role during luteinization, as granulosa cells from Cdk4–/– mice proliferate normally, but luteinization is impaired (42). Furthermore, it is possible that the continued expression of cyclin D2/Cdk4 acts to sequester CKIs increased in response to hCG [i.e. p21 (4)], thereby allowing cyclin E/Cdk2 activity to continue until the expression of specific CKIs exceeds cyclin D2/Cdk4.
The expression of cyclin E and Cdk2 mRNA does not change after hCG, although 6 h after an ovulatory hCG bolus, cyclin E protein increases, whereas Cdk2 protein has a tendency (P = 0.06) to increase. Because protein, but not mRNA, levels change after hCG, it is hypothesized that these gene products are regulated posttranslationally. The increasing expression of cyclin E protein is hypothesized to be a consequence of cells accumulating in the late G1 phase of the cell cycle. Cyclin E is synthesized and accumulates as cells progress through G1, peaking in late G1, and is degraded once cells enter S phase (43). Thus granulosa cells arrested in G1 are expected to maintain expression of cyclin E protein. The pattern of Cdk2 activity follows that of Cdk2 protein, suggesting that Cdk2, but not cyclin E, is a limiting factor in activity of the cyclin E/Cdk 2 complex. Thus, Cdk 2 activity may be suppressed in the latter stages of the periovulatory interval by decreasing Cdk2 protein levels as well as by increasing expression of p21 (4). Because cyclin E/Cdk2 complexes are specific to entry into S phase, it is possible that the observed Cdk2 activity is related to the BrdU uptake observed in cumulus granulosa cells after hCG, although specific data on this point are lacking. Alternatively, there is evidence that cyclin E/Cdk2 can use a variety of proteins as a substrate, including PR (44). The expression of PR mRNA and protein in luteinizing rat granulosa cells (26) coincides with the observed Cdk2 activity during the periovulatory interval, making it tempting to speculate that PR is phosphorylated/activated by Cdk2. Colocalization studies of cyclin E, Cdk2, PR, and proliferating granulosa cells after hCG are thus warranted.
In summary, granulosa cells continue to enter S phase for up to 10 h after an ovulatory stimulus, although the subset of proliferating granulosa cells may shift from mural to cumulus with hCG administration. Little evidence for regulation of cyclin D2 is observed, and although cyclin E/Cdk2 activity is initially suppressed, there is a small transient increase between 4 and 8 h after hCG. It is hypothesized that this transient increase in activity may be accounted for by Cdk2 protein levels and also by cyclin D2/Cdk4 complexes acting to sequester inhibitory proteins such as p21. Overall, these data are consistent with a model in which an ovulatory stimulus is predicted to induce additional proliferation in the luteinizing ovarian follicle.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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Aspects of this work were presented at the 2003 Annual Meeting of the Society for the Study of Reproduction in Cincinnati, OH.
First Published Online September 16, 2004
Abbreviations: BrdU, Bromodeoxyuridine; Cdk, cyclin-dependent kinase; CL, corpus luteum; CKI, Cdk inhibitors; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; hCG, human chorionic gonadotropin; HIIIS, histone IIIS; PI, propidium iodide; PMSG, pregnant mare serum gonadotropin; PR, progesterone receptor; TIMP, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases.
Received May 7, 2004.
Accepted for publication September 9, 2004.
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) and granulosa cell expression of PR mRNA (
) increase after an ovulatory bolus of hCG. Serum progesterone was measured by RIA, and PR mRNA by real-time RT-PCR using rpl32 as an internal standard. Superscripts denote significant differences vs. 0 h (#, serum progesterone; *, PR mRNA). Levels of COX-2 and ADAMTS-1 mRNA are depicted on the right. Data are mean ± SEM (n = 4–8 per time point).
