| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
Centre for Neuroendocrinology and Department of Physiology, Otago School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, 9001 Dunedin, New Zealand
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Allan E. Herbison, Centre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Physiology, University of Otago School of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 913, Dunedin, New Zealand. E-mail: allan.herbison{at}stonebow.otago.ac.nz.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The morphology of the GnRH neuron has been studied intensively at both light and electron microscopic levels (6). Classically, GnRH neurons in most species have been described as fusiform or bipolar in shape with simple, unbranched dendritic extensions at one or both poles. In addition, the recognition of two distinct morphologies of GnRH neurons has emerged from studies in which their cell bodies and proximal dendrites were described as having either a smooth or spiny profile (7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15). Importantly, electron microscopic studies have described GnRH neurons as unusual in that they receive a relatively sparse synaptic input (11, 16, 17, 18). Ultrastructural serial reconstructions of GnRH neurons in the rat and monkey found between two and 12 synapses on each cell body (19). This is clearly different to other neuronal cell types in the brain where individual neurons display anywhere between 2,000 and 16,000 synaptic inputs (20, 21). However, the reported paucity of synapses on GnRH neurons is somewhat incongruent with recent electrophysiological data that suggest GnRH neurons receive extensive glutamatergic and 
-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic synaptic input (22). Although electron microscopy represents a definitive tool by which synapses may be identified, such investigations are limited to examining regions of the cell where GnRH peptide is abundant, typically limiting labeling to the cell body, proximal dendrites, and nerve terminals.
Recently, transgenic mouse models in which the GnRH neurons fluoresce have provided a means through which the scattered GnRH cell bodies can be readily identified and investigated within acute brain slices (23, 24). By patching onto individual GnRH neurons in situ, cells can be filled with highly diffusible, low-molecular-weight molecules such as biocytin and subsequently labeled with a fluorophore for analysis by confocal microscopy. The advantage of visualizing GnRH neurons in this way is that the entire cytoplasmic volume of the neuron can be assessed, including elements such as dendritic spines that cannot be detected reliably with labeling of GnRH peptide alone. Dendritic and somal spines are now established as representing the postsynaptic sites at which the great majority of excitatory inputs make synapses (25, 26). In the present study, we questioned whether an assessment of GnRH neuron spine density with this cell-filling approach might provide a novel way to reevaluate the issue of synaptic input density to these cells.
|
Materials and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Biocytin filling of GnRH neurons
Both lines of mice were treated in the same manner. Between 60 and 75 d of age, male and diestrous female mice were killed by cervical dislocation, and their brains rapidly removed and placed in ice-cold, bicarbonate-buffered, artificial cerebrospinal fluid of the following composition: 118 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, 0.5 mM CaCl2, 6.0 mM MgCl2, 11 mM D-glucose, 10 mM HEPES, and 25 mM NaHCO3 (pH 7.4 when bubbled with 95% O2 and 5% CO2). Brains were blocked and glued with cyanoacrylate to the chilled stage of a vibratome, and 200- to 300-µm-thick coronal slices containing the medial septum (MS) and preoptic area were prepared. The slices were then incubated at 30 C for 1 h in oxygenated recording artificial cerebrospinal fluid consisting of: 118 mM NaCl, 3 mM KCl, 2.5 mM CaCl2, 1.2 mM MgCl2, 11 mM D-glucose, 10 mM HEPES, and 25 mM NaHCO3 before being transferred to the recording chamber, held submerged, and continuously superfused at a rate of 2 ml/min at room temperature. Slices were initially examined under fluorescence with a low-power objective to determine the distribution of fluorescent cells. A single, randomly chosen GnRH neuron was then brought into focus under the high-power objective using fluorescence for 5–10 sec before switching to differential interference contrast optics. After patching of the cell under differential interference contrast optics, it was then briefly (5 sec) examined under fluorescence again to confirm its fluorescent identity. Patch pipettes were pulled from thin-wall borosilicate glass capillary tubing (GC150TF, 1.5-mm outer diameter, Harvard Apparatus Ltd., Edenbridge, UK) on a vertical pipette puller. The tip resistance of the electrodes was 4–6 M
. The patch pipette solution was passed through a disposable 0.22-µm filter before use and contained: 130 mM KCl, 5 mM NaCl, 0.4 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2, 10 mM HEPES, and 1.1 mM EGTA, with pH adjusted to 7.3 with KOH. Biocytin was added at a final concentration of 0.5%. After achieving whole-cell mode, the pipette was kept attached to the GnRH neuron for 5 min to allow diffusion of biocytin. After detaching the pipette from the cell, slices were maintained in the recording chamber for 30 min and then placed in ice-cold 4% paraformaldehyde for 4 h at 4 C. Typically, only one cell was filled in each brain slice. Slices were then transferred to Tris-buffered saline (TBS, pH 7.6) and kept at 4 C until processing for immunocytochemistry.
Immunocytochemistry and confocal analysis
Floating slices were washed in TBS at room temperature to remove any residual paraformaldehyde. Slices were then incubated with Texas Red-conjugated avidin (2.6 µl/ml, Vector Laboratories, Inc., Peterborough, UK) in TBS containing 0.3% Triton X-100 and 0.3% BSA for 4 h at room temperature in darkness. Slices were then washed in TBS over 1 h, mounted onto glass slides, and coverslipped with Vectashield aqueous mountant (Vector Laboratories, Inc.).
Forty-five biocytin-filled GnRH neurons were imaged and analyzed on a Zeiss 510 LSM upright confocal laser scanning microscope system using LSM 510 control software (version 3.2) (n = 23 neurons from seven male mice and n = 22 neurons from eight diestrus female mice). Stacks of confocal images were captured using the following objectives, 40x Plan Neofluar (numerical aperture, 1.3), 63x PlanApochromat (numerical aperture, 1.4) with 2x zoom function. A red helium neon laser exciting at 633 nm was used to image the Texas Red fluorophore. A series of images at 0.23-µm intervals throughout the entire filled neuron were collected for analysis. Images are presented as projections of optical images stacks. The brightness and contrast of the images were adjusted in Photoshop (Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA) to match microscope visualization. For two GnRH neurons, a three-dimensional image was rendered for diagrammatic purposes using 3D for LSM (version 1.04.0060, Carl Zeiss GmbH, Jena, Germany).
Using LSM 510 control software (version 3.2), spines were identified as protrusions from the somata or dendrite of less than 5 µm in length (29). Thin, nonbeaded spiny protrusions greater than 5 µm in length from the soma or proximal dendrites were identified as filopodia (29). The dendrite with the greatest circumference extending from the filled GnRH soma was designated the primary dendrite. Spine numbers were recorded for each labeled GnRH soma and for 50-µm intervals of the entire visible length of the primary dendrite. The analyzed intervals of the primary dendritic length were assigned as follows: first 50 µm proximal to soma followed by subsequent 50-µm portions every 100 µm so that spine numbers were recorded at 100- to 150-, 250- to 300-, 400- to 450-µm intervals, etc., to the natural end of the dendrite or until the dendrite was observed to extend out of the slice. For bipolar neurons, the spine numbers of the secondary dendrite were determined by counting spines occurring within the first 50 µm. Where the secondary dendrite was shorter than 50 µm, the number of spines per 10 µm was determined and compared with the same region on the primary dendrite. The orientation and morphological characteristics of each neuron were recorded, and the entire dendritic length was traced and measured. Labeled GnRH neurons were classified by brain region [preoptic area/diagonal band of Broca (POA/DBB) or MS], overall morphological profile (unipolar, Fig. 1A
; bipolar, Fig. 1B; or irregular, Fig. 1C); the latter being defined as having more than two dendrites within 50 µm of the cell body or a very proximally branched primary dendrite) and primary dendritic orientation (vertical or horizontal/diagonal). An investigator blinded to experimental groups counted spines in two dimensions using collected z series confocal images.
|
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
), and 65% were bipolar with two dendrites extending from opposite poles of the soma (Fig. 1B), whereas 25% had three or more dendrites (Fig. 1C). Most GnRH neurons (71%) exhibited a vertical orientation with vertical dendritic extensions, 15% had dendritic extensions in the horizontal plane within the slice (Fig. 1D), and 13% had dendrites arranged in a diagonal fashion (Fig. 1E). Although the orientation of each neuron was classified according to the direction of its primary dendrite, many dendrites were observed to change direction (Fig. 1G). Filled neurons from the different transgenic mouse models, GnRH-GFP and GnRH-EGFP-mut5, were indistinguishable from one another.
Biocytin filling revealed that GnRH neurons extend long primary dendrites (Fig. 1G) with an average length of 307 ± 49 µm. However, half (23 of 45) of these cells had primary dendrites that exited the coronal brain slice, and their true length was not established. Notably, three GnRH neurons displayed dendrites extending over 1000 µm in length, and one GnRH dendrite measured 1627 µm from cell body to its point of exit from the slice. In cases where the proximal dendrite ended within the brain slice, a characteristic, extensive looping and tufted morphology was observed (Fig. 1, F and G, insert).
All 45 biocytin-filled GnRH neurons exhibited somal and dendritic spines with densities ranging up to a maximum of 1 spine/µm plasma membrane. The majority of spines observed on GnRH neurons were simple sessile spines, synaptic protrusions without a neck constriction; however, thin pedunculated spines and mushroom-like spines (30) were also observed (Fig. 2, C and D). Approximately half of the GnRH neurons (23 of 45) had long, thin filopodia extending from their cell bodies and proximal dendrites (Fig. 2D). Although some neurons had up to three filopodia, on average, GnRH neurons displayed less than one filopodium (0.73 ± 0.13) per neuron.
|
). The secondary dendrite exhibited a mean spine density of 0.5 ± 0.1 spines/µm within the first 50 µm, compared with 0.4 ± 0.1 spines/µm for the same regions of the designated primary dendrite (n = 10). Although there was a trend for a gradual reduction in spine numbers with increasing distance from the cell body, spines were still observed even on the most distal elements of the primary dendrite (Figs. 1G and 3A). On an individual neuron basis, the density of dendritic spines ranged from 0.07–1.04 spines/µm with a mean of 0.4 spines/µm of dendritic membrane.
|
).
In an effort to reveal any trends in spine density among the GnRH neurons, spine numbers were compared between neurons classified by neuronal morphology, anatomical location, and dendritic orientation. Spine numbers were not significantly different among GnRH neurons classified as classically unipolar, bipolar, or irregular in morphological profile (Fig. 4A). Likewise, no significant differences in spine number were found between GnRH neurons located in the POA/DBB compared with the MS (Fig. 4B). However, neurons with dendrites extending horizontally or diagonally had significantly more spines on their proximal dendrites than those of cells with vertically orientated dendrites (Fig. 4C). Although not significantly different (P = 0.0514), a similar trend of increased spine density in horizontal/diagonal dendrites was also seen at greater dendritic lengths (Fig. 4C).
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Given that the average dendritic spine density of a GnRH neuron was 0.4 spines/µm of membrane, and that the mean primary dendrite length was 350 µm, we estimate that an average GnRH neuron has approximately 160 spines. However, this estimate is very conservative. For one, we have only been able to evaluate spine density in a two-dimensional manner and all spines perpendicular to the plane of the slice have not been counted. Secondly, we have only performed a detailed analysis on the primary dendrite and so bipolar and irregular GnRH neurons will have more spines per cell. Furthermore, the actual length of the primary dendrite in over half of the GnRH neurons examined was longer than the recorded value because it exited the brain slice before terminating. Three GnRH neurons were found to have primary dendrites more than 1000 µm in length. For these reasons, we believe that individual GnRH neurons are, in reality, very likely to receive hundreds of individual excitatory inputs, and that this number will be determined principally by their dendritic architecture. Given that this estimate does not include the substantial GABAergic inputs, which appear to greatly out number excitatory inputs in GnRH neurons (22, 32), or certain neuropeptidergic and aminergic afferents to the GnRH neuron, the total number of synapses upon a GnRH neuron could easily be within the range of 500-1000. This indicates that GnRH neurons are not a neuronal phenotype with relatively sparse synaptic input. Indeed, our conservative estimate of 0.4 dendritic spines/µm for GnRH neurons shows that these cells receive more excitatory inputs than do unidentified neurons in the preoptic area (0.1 dendritic spines/µm) (33), ventromedial nucleus (0.2 dendritic spines/µm) (34), and arcuate nucleus (0.25 dendritic spines/µm) (35) of the rat hypothalamus.
Although providing a different view of GnRH neuron morphology, the present findings are not necessarily discordant with prior ultrastructural studies. When comparing results at the level of the cell body, it is interesting to note that we found an average of 13 spines/cell body compared with two to 12 synapses detected in serial ultrastructural reconstructions of GnRH cell bodies in the rat and monkey (19). Admittedly, spine numbers will only represent a subset of all synaptic inputs to the GnRH cell bodies, but, given this, the values are not substantially different. A recent electron microscopic study reported that monkey GnRH cell bodies and proximal dendrites had a synapse density of 0.1 µm/µm plasma membrane (32). However, there appear to be clear differences between the ultrastructural and cell-filling data in terms of dendritic morphology, with many more synaptic inputs suggested by the latter method. One reason for this difference may be that major species differences exist between GnRH neurons in the mouse compared with rats, sheep, and monkeys. Another possibility may be that spine numbers are altered in GnRH neurons as a result of brain slicing. A 40% increase in spine numbers on hippocampal neurons has been reported 1 h after slice preparation (36). However, even if this was to be the case, our data would still suggest that GnRH neurons receive substantially more inputs than has been recognized previously. We believe that the most likely reason for the discrepancy, however, lies in the ability of the cell-filling approach to reveal the whole of the dendritic tree including elements of the GnRH neuron that do not contain GnRH peptide. Although dendritic spines have been observed by electron microscopy on GnRH neurons (11, 17), it is likely very difficult to visualize structures protruding up to 5 µm away from the cell membrane with this approach.
We also find evidence here for filopodium-like structures extending from around half of all GnRH neurons. Similar structures have been observed in ovine GnRH neurons (13). Filapodia are thought to be involved in synaptogenesis by locating and guiding appropriate axons back to the dendrite (37, 38, 39). As such, filopodia are highly motile and can extend and retract within minutes (40). However, filopodia are thought to be rare in the mature brain (29), and their observation here on mature GnRH neurons is intriguing and may suggest ongoing synaptogenesis in these cells. In addition, it is interesting to note that we found moderate numbers of spine-like structures on the soma themselves. With some exceptions (41), somatic spines are not common in the adult nervous system.
With the exception of the orientation of the primary dendrite, we failed to find any topographical or morphological parameter that correlated with the range of spine densities observed on GnRH neurons. The nature and functional significance of horizontally orientated dendrites having more excitatory inputs than vertical dendrites can only be speculated upon. It has been suggested that dendritic orientation reflects, in part, trophic influences of excitatory afferents during development (42). It is possible that horizontally orientated dendrites experience a different pattern of excitatory input during development and that this then remains in the form of increased spine numbers and synaptic input during adulthood.
We also failed to detect any significant sex differences in spine densities upon GnRH cell bodies and dendrites. This was surprising considering a previous electron microscopic study reported that GnRH neurons in female rats had twice the number of synapses as those found on GnRH neurons in males (31). Nevertheless, an earlier immunocytochemical study had failed to detect sex differences in the number of spiny verses smooth GnRH neurons found in the rat (43). As noted above, spines may be particularly difficult to evaluate with electron microscopy compared with synapses that exist directly upon on the somal plasma membrane. Thus, it remains possible that excitatory inputs to GnRH neurons via spines are not sexually differentiated, whereas nonspinous (e.g. GABAergic) inputs may be more abundant in females. There is some evidence to support this idea as GABAergic inputs to mouse GnRH neurons are modified by masculinizing prenatal androgen exposure in females (44), and sex differences have been observed in GABAA receptor subunit mRNA expression in mouse GnRH neurons (45).
In summary, we report here a previously unsuspected dendritic morphology for the GnRH neuronal phenotype with long primary dendrites that may extend for up to 1500 µm. We also show that all GnRH neurons have the potential to receive substantial numbers of excitatory inputs. Such findings are in good agreement with the recent electrophysiological (27, 46, 47) and receptor-labeling (48, 49) studies that have demonstrated direct glutamatergic neurotransmission in mouse GnRH neurons. The highest density of excitatory input to a GnRH neuron was found within the first 50 µm of proximal dendrite. Together, these findings indicate that, like other final output neurons (50), the GnRH neuron receives many synaptic inputs and, as such, represents a major site of neuronal integration within the GnRH neuronal network.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
|
Footnotes |
|---|
First Published Online November 24, 2004
Abbreviations: GABA, -Aminobutyric acid; GFP, green fluorescent protein; MS, medial septum; POA/DBB, preoptic area/diagonal band of Broca; TBS, Tris-buffered saline.
Received October 19, 2004.
Accepted for publication November 19, 2004.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
-aminobutyric acid (GABA(A)) receptor subunit mRNA expression in postnatal gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons of the male mouse with single cell RT-PCR. Neuroendocrinology 74:300–308[CrossRef][Medline]
-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazolepropionic acid-like inputs in hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing-hormone (GnRH) neurons. Neuroscience 128:443–450[CrossRef][Medline]
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  K. G. Pratt and C. D. Aizenman Multisensory Integration in Mesencephalic Trigeminal Neurons in Xenopus Tadpoles J Neurophysiol, July 1, 2009; 102(1): 399 - 412. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. E. Campbell, G. Gaidamaka, S.-K. Han, and A. E. Herbison Dendro-dendritic bundling and shared synapses between gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons PNAS, June 30, 2009; 106(26): 10835 - 10840. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. B. Roberts and K. J. Suter Emerging methodologies for the study of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing-hormone (GnRH) neurons Integr. Comp. Biol., November 1, 2008; 48(5): 548 - 559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. T. Smith, L. M. Coolen, L. J. Kriegsfeld, I. P. Sari, M. R. Jaafarzadehshirazi, M. Maltby, K. Bateman, R. L. Goodman, A. J. Tilbrook, T. Ubuka, et al. Variation in Kisspeptin and RFamide-Related Peptide (RFRP) Expression and Terminal Connections to Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons in the Brain: A Novel Medium for Seasonal Breeding in the Sheep Endocrinology, November 1, 2008; 149(11): 5770 - 5782. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 I. Dumalska, M. Wu, E. Morozova, R. Liu, A. van den Pol, and M. Alreja Excitatory Effects of the Puberty-Initiating Peptide Kisspeptin and Group I Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Agonists Differentiate Two Distinct Subpopulations of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons J. Neurosci., August 6, 2008; 28(32): 8003 - 8013. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. B. Roberts, R. E. Campbell, A. E. Herbison, and K. J. Suter Dendritic Action Potential Initiation in Hypothalamic Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons Endocrinology, July 1, 2008; 149(7): 3355 - 3360. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. J. Spergel Calcium and Small-Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels in Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons before, during, and after Puberty Endocrinology, May 1, 2007; 148(5): 2383 - 2390. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. L. Jasoni, M. G. Todman, M. M. Strumia, and A. E. Herbison Cell Type-Specific Expression of a Genetically Encoded Calcium Indicator Reveals Intrinsic Calcium Oscillations in Adult Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons J. Neurosci., January 24, 2007; 27(4): 860 - 867. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Clarkson and A. E. Herbison Postnatal Development of Kisspeptin Neurons in Mouse Hypothalamus; Sexual Dimorphism and Projections to Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons Endocrinology, December 1, 2006; 147(12): 5817 - 5825. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Z. Chu and S. M. Moenter Physiologic Regulation of a Tetrodotoxin-Sensitive Sodium Influx That Mediates a Slow Afterdepolarization Potential in Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons: Possible Implications for the Central Regulation of Fertility. J. Neurosci., November 15, 2006; 26(46): 11961 - 11973. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Robinson Prenatal programming of the female reproductive neuroendocrine system by androgens. Reproduction, October 1, 2006; 132(4): 539 - 547. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Terasawa Postnatal remodeling of gonadotropin-releasing hormone I neurons: toward understanding the mechanism of the onset of puberty. Endocrinology, August 1, 2006; 147(8): 3650 - 3651. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. C. Cottrell, R. E. Campbell, S.-K. Han, and A. E. Herbison Postnatal Remodeling of Dendritic Structure and Spine Density in Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neurons Endocrinology, August 1, 2006; 147(8): 3652 - 3661. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. B. Roberts, J. A. Best, and K. J. Suter Dendritic Processing of Excitatory Synaptic Input in Hypothalamic Gonadotropin Releasing-Hormone Neurons Endocrinology, March 1, 2006; 147(3): 1545 - 1555. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. E Bowe, X. F Li, J. S Kinsey-Jones, S Paterson, S. D Brain, S. L Lightman, and K. T O'Byrne Calcitonin gene-related peptide-induced suppression of luteinizing hormone pulses in the rat: the role of endogenous opioid peptides J. Physiol., August 1, 2005; 566(3): 921 - 928. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Endocrinology | Endocrine Reviews | J. Clin. End. & Metab. |
| Molecular Endocrinology | Recent Prog. Horm. Res. | All Endocrine Journals |
