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Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 755 Nutriomique (D.L., S.T., M.K., K.C.), 75004 Paris, France; University Pierre and Marie Curie-Paris 6 (D.L., S.T., M.K., K.C.), Faculty of Medicine Les Cordeliers, 75004 Paris, France; and AP-HP, Hôtel-Dieu Hospital (K.C.), Nutrition Department, 75004 Paris, France; and Cardiovascular Physiology Institute (A.M.), J.W. Goethe University, D-60385 Frankfurt/Main, Germany
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Danièle Lacasa, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 755 EA 3502, Service de Nutrition Hôtel Dieu, 1 place du parvis Notre Dame, 75004 Paris, France. E-mail: daniele.lacasa{at}ea3502.org.
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Abstract |
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B signaling, increased gene expression and release of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and induced preadipocyte proliferation. This phenomenon was associated with increased cyclin D1 gene expression and maintenance of the fibronectin-rich matrix. Anti-TNF
neutralizing antibody inhibits the inflammatory state of preadipocytes positioning TNF as an important mediator of inflammation in preadipocytes. Strikingly, conditioned media produced by macrophages isolated from human adipose tissue exerted comparable effects with activated macrophages, i.e. decreased adipogenesis and increased inflammatory state in the preadipocytes. These data show that macrophage-secreted factors inhibit the formation of mature adipocytes, suggesting possible role in limiting adipose tissue expansion in humans. |
Introduction |
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, IL-1ß, IL-6, and so on) mostly originate from the nonadipose cell fraction, which includes infiltrated macrophages (3, 4, 5). The amount of infiltrated macrophages is closely related with adipose tissue mass (6, 7, 8). The inflammatory cells are both dispersed in the whole tissue or disposed in crown structures around some adipocytes (9). Weight loss leads to the improvement of the inflammatory profile (4) together with a significant reduction in the number of adipose tissue infiltrating macrophages in obese patients (9). Bone marrow transplantation experiments in mice (6) suggest that the origin of adipose tissue macrophages is mainly from blood monocytes, which are in a proinflammatory state in obese subjects (10). Monocytes migrate to tissues where they differentiate into macrophages exhibiting tissue-specific functions (11). Once activated, macrophages produce a wide array of growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and proteolytic enzymes (12). The role of macrophage infiltration and its derived products in adipose tissue biology and development in humans is mostly unknown.
Our working hypothesis is that macrophage infiltration affects fat expansion through a paracrine action on adipose differentiation. This process is characterized by extensive extracellular matrix remodeling with the disappearance of the fibronectin-rich matrix in the preadipocytes (13, 14, 15). During the differentiation program, the transcriptional factor CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)ß is transiently induced leading to activation of two master adipogenic transcription factors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)
2 and C/EBP. These factors positively regulate each other and then activate the transcription of genes involved in lipid metabolism. Regulation of adipocyte differentiation is exerted by various endocrine and autocrine factors (hormones, inflammatory cytokines, growth factors.), which mediate this process by acting on the synthesis and/or activity of adipogenic transcription factors (16, 17). In murine adipose cell lines, the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and TNF strongly suppress adipogenesis (18, 19) through activation of the nuclear factor B (NF-B) pathway (20). Activation of this pathway leads to the release and nuclear translocation of NF-B subunits resulting in an enhanced transcription of inflammatory markers (cytokines and chemokines) (21, 22).
It has been recently shown that secreted factors derived from the macrophage cell line increase the proinflammatory status of 3T3-L1 adipocytes and human preadipocytes (23, 24, 25). Because these effects could be due, at least in part, to the phenotype of transformed cells, we ought to develop an experimental cell model using primary human cells. The cells were cultured in presence of conditioned medium from human monocyte-derived macrophages, the most likely cell source for infiltrated macrophages in the adipose tissue. Because the phenotype of macrophages is subject to marked changes in response to inflammatory stimuli, monocyte-derived macrophages were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) before harvesting the conditioned medium to test the effect of macrophagic activation. Finally, we were able to demonstrate that conditioned medium produced by macrophages isolated from human adipose tissue reproduced the effects of LPS activated monocyte-derived macrophages on preadipocyte differentiation.
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Materials and Methods |
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Preparation of human blood monocyte-derived macrophages and conditioned medium: Blood from overweight (body mass index > 25 kg/m2) female patients was immediately processed for plasma blood mononuclear cells isolation. Blood sample was layered on plasma blood mononuclear cell isolation medium (Amersham Biosciences, Little Chalfont, UK). Differentiation of monocytes to macrophages was conducted as previously described (28). Briefly, plasma blood mononuclear cells resuspended in 2 ml of RMPI medium containing 10% FBS were seeded at a density of 1 x 106 cells in six-well plates and allowed to differentiate for 7–8 d. Expression of specific macrophage markers (Ham 56/mac-1 staining and CD 68, CD 11b, CD 163 gene expression) was assessed to verify the degree of macrophagic differentiation (data not shown). Macrophage-conditioned media (CM) was prepared by incubating the monocyte-derived macrophages at 4 x 105 cells in 12-well plates in 1 ml of RMPI-10% FBS for 24 h. To test the effect of macrophage activation, the cells were incubated in the conditions described here for 24 h with 100 ng/ml LPS (from Escherichia coli 0127:B8; Sigma, St. Louis, MI) prior collecting the medium (Ac CM). The concentration of two inflammatory cytokines, TNF and IL-6, were markedly increased in Ac CM vs. CM (TNF: 52 ± 25 vs. 2465 ± 1069 pg/ml; IL-6: 62.7 ± 16.8 vs. 1301 ± 323 pg/ml, n = 3). Control medium was RPMI-10% FBS kept at 37 C for 24 h in the absence of macrophages. In some experiments, the 24-h culture RPMI medium obtained from human epithelial kidney cells (HEK 293) was tested. The conditioned media of the macrophages obtained from three to five individuals were pooled and stored at –80 C until used. Distinct pools were used for each culture experiment.
Preparation of adipose tissue macrophages and CM
Isolation of adipose tissue macrophage (ATM) from human adipose tissue stroma vascular fraction was performed as previously described (8). Isolated human SVF cells were obtained from sc adipose tissue biopsies as described previously. SVF cells were suspended in PBS/2% FBS/1 mmol/liter EDTA were incubated at room temperature for 15 min with CD34-positive selection cocktail followed by a 10-min incubation period with magnetic nanoparticles (Stemcell Technologies, Grenoble, France). The CD34-negative cell fraction was incubated with CD14-positive selection cocktail. The bead-coupled CD14+ cells were maintained for 24 h in 1 ml of ECBM (Promocell, Heidelberg, Germany) supplemented with 0.1% bovine serum albumin at a cell density of 4 x 105 cells in 12-well plates to obtain macrophage conditioned media (ATM CM), which was stored at –80 C before use.
Differentiation of human preadipocytes
Preadipocytes were cultured for 24 h in 1 ml of DMEM-10% FBS at a cell density of 105 cells per well in 12-well plates. The preadipocytes were then incubated with 0.25 ml of control RPMI, CM, or Ac CM (corresponding to 1 x 105 macrophages activated or not) and 0.75 ml DMEM/F12 induction medium (final concentration of 50 nM insulin, 100 nM dexamethasone, 0.25 mM inhibitor 1-methyl-3-isobutylxanthine, and 100 nM rosiglitazone) for 4 d (as described in Ref. 27). Next, this medium was replaced by 0.25 ml of control RPMI, CM, or Ac CM and 0.75 ml DMEM/F12 culture medium (final concentration of 50 nM insulin and 100 nM rosiglitazone). The medium was changed every 2 d until 10 to 12 d. For ATM CM, the experimental conditions were as described previously except that the proportion was 0.5 ml of ATM CM (corresponding to 2 x 105 AT macrophages) or control medium and 0.5 ml of culture medium. It should be noted that macrophage markers, Ham56 and Mac-1, staining tested negative in preadipocytes from the different experimental groups indicating the absence of remaining macrophages in cell culture.
Other cellular determinations
The cytotoxicity of macrophages conditioned media was assessed by measurement of lactate release in adipocytes culture medium (BioVision, Mountain View, CA). At the end of culture, the number of viable cells was measured using the MTS proliferation assay (Promega, Madison, WI) and by counting 4'-6 diamidino-2-phenyl indole-2HCl-stained nuclei. Differentiated preadipocytes were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 min and Oil red O coloration was performed. After isopropanol extraction, quantification of lipids was performed by optical density measurements and normalized to cell protein levels as described in (29).
RNA preparation and real-time PCR
Differentiated preadipocytes were processed for RNA extraction using the RNeasy RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Courtaboeuf, France). Total RNAs (1 µg) were reversed transcribed using random hexamers and Supercript II reverse transcriptase (30). SYBR green primers for the tested genes are listed in Table 1
. Real-time PCRs were conducted with 25 ng cDNA and both the sense and antisense oligonucleotides in a final volume of 20 µL using the SYBR green Taqman universal PCR mix (Applied Biosystems, Minneapolis, MN) monitored and assessed in a detection system instrument (Applied Biosystems) (30). All values were normalized according to 18S expression.
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B (93H1), phospho Ser 536 p65 NF-B (7F1) and I-B; Cell Signaling Technology, Beverly, MA]. IL-6, IL-8, adiponectin, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 antibodies were obtained from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN). Specific signals were detected with the ECL detection solution (Amersham Biosciences) and immediately exposed to x-ray films. Signals were quantified by densitometry.
Immunofluorescence analysis
Preadipocytes were differentiated on glass coverslips in 24-well plates in the presence or not of CM or Ac CM. After 10 d, cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 10 min and permeabilized with 0.1% Triton X-100 for 5 min. Coverslips were incubated with primary antibody for 1 h (monoclonal human fibronectin; BD Transduction Laboratories) and then with Cy2-conjugated antimouse IgG (Amersham Biosciences). Nuclei were stained with 4'-6 diamidino-2-phenyl indole-2HCl. Coverslips were examined with an Olympus BX 41 fluorescence microscope.
Measurements of cytokines in CM
Human IL-6 and TNF immunoassays (R&D Systems) to measure cytokine concentrations in macrophage CM were performed according to the manufacturer’s protocols.
Statistical analysis
Data are expressed as the mean ± SEM. The experiments were performed at least three times, each using preadipocytes from different human subjects and distinct macrophage CM. Statistical analysis was performed using a Student’s t test. Comparisons between more than two groups were carried out using a one-way analysis of variance analysis in which P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
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Results |
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). These cells conserved a complete fibroblastic appearance. In addition, preadipocytes cultured in presence of Ac CM exhibited 3-fold more fibronectin-rich matrix than control or CM-treated cells as detected by immunofluorescence (data not shown) and Western blotting (Fig. 1).
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The number of viable cells at the end of the differentiation process (10 d) was not significantly changed by the presence of CM. By contrast, 50% increased number of cells was counted in culture supplemented with Ac CM (Fig. 2). These data indicate that in the presence of CM or Ac CM, human preadipocytes failed to differentiate and continued to proliferate in presence of Ac CM.
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, the gene expression of PPAR2 and C/EBP was diminished by 50% and 70%, respectively, in CM- and Ac CM-treated preadipocytes, whereas that of C/EBPß remained unchanged. The expression of leptin and adiponectin was also reduced by 75% and 45%, respectively, with no further effect of Ac CM vs. CM. The inhibitory effect of CM or Ac CM on CD36 and aP2 gene expression was even more pronounced. The expression of SREBP-1c and FAS was decreased by 40% in CM-treated cells and by 80% in Ac CM-treated preadipocytes. Of note, when the human preadipocytes were treated with CM or Ac CM exclusively during the first 4 d of culture, i.e. during the induction period, the expression of PPAR, aP2, leptin, and adiponectin remains stable (data not shown) indicating a minimal effect on adipose differentiation in this experimental condition.
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). In agreement with the gene expression findings, Ac CM- but not CM-treated preadipocytes exhibited markedly increased release of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and IL-6 (5-fold) and of IL-8 (7-fold) (Fig. 4B). In contrast to the other markers, adiponectin decreased markedly in the culture medium in the presence of Ac CM.
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). We next investigated the role of TNF on preadipocyte functions by using anti-TNF neutralizing antibody treatment. TNF is mostly produced by macrophages and was recently shown to provoke inflammation changes in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (24). The inhibitory effect of CM or Ac CM on the aP2 gene expression was slightly corrected by blocking TNF. In contrast, the strong induction of IL-6 by Ac CM was markedly inhibited by the anti-TNF neutralizing antibody treatment suggesting an important role for TNF in the preadipocyte inflammation (Fig. 5B). In addition, dose–response experiments using CM and Ac CM showed that Ac CM but not CM provoked a dose-dependent IL-6 induction. In contrast, aP2 gene expression was dose-dependently decreased by CM and Ac CM (Table 2).
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2 (–65%), aP2 (–80%), leptin (–70%), and adiponectin (–65%) (Fig. 6). In addition, these preadipocytes also exhibited a strong inflammatory status evidenced by increased gene expression of IL-6 (16.5-fold) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (2.5-fold). These effects were strikingly similar to those elicited by Ac CM on the human preadipocytes (compare Fig. 6 with Figs. 3
and 4A).
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B pathway is activated in preadipocytes in response to Ac CMB pathway is a key transcriptional regulator of inflammation, we hypothesized that CM and Ac CM activate this signaling system in the human preadipocytes. As shown in Fig. 7, the preadipocyte incubation with Ac CM, but not CM, rapidly increased by 2-fold the active form of NF-B subunit, phospho NF-B p65 (Ser 536). I-B protein, which sequesters the p50 and p65 NF-B subunits in the cytosol, was decreased by 70% after Ac CM treatment. The protein expression of p50 NF-B subunit precursor, p105, itself a NF-B target (31), was increased by the chronic treatment of preadipocytes with Ac CM. These data indicate that Ac CM promotes NF-B activation. The increased expression and release of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (Fig. 4), which are known NF-B gene targets, supports the activation of this pathway in Ac CM-treated preadipocytes. In addition, the expression of cyclin D1, which is induced in response to NF-B activation, was increased 2.5-fold in Ac CM-treated preadipocytes (Fig. 4A).
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Discussion |
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2 and C/EBP, when preadipocytes are exposed to macrophage-derived factors all along the culture period. Molecules produced by macrophages represent a physiological cocktail of biomolecules probably acting synergistically on PPAR2 and C/EBP, both transcription factors known to function in a positive regulatory loop to activate adipogenesis (34). By contrast, C/EBPß expression was unaffected, suggesting that this transcription factor is not critical for the effect of macrophage-derived factors on PPAR2 and C/EBP gene expression at this stage of human adipose differentiation.
Until now, the role of inflammation molecules on adipogenesis was addressed mostly on adipocyte rodent cell lines by exploring the individual effect of a limited number of cytokines. IL-1ß and TNF have been described as strong suppressors of adipogenesis (18, 19, 20) and these cytokines exert their inhibitory effects through suppression of PPAR expression and activity via NF-B activation (20, 35). However, macrophages produce a huge variety of biomolecules such as growth factors (transforming growth factor ß, vascular endothelial growth factor), cytokines (TNF, IL-1ß, IL-6), proteolytic enzymes, and metabolites (reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, and prostaglandins) (12) that needs to be precisely characterized in macrophages infiltrating human adipose tissue. The production of these inflammatory molecules is exacerbated in activated macrophages. It is plausible that a spectrum of biomolecules acting synergistically is involved in the inhibition of adipogenesis through various pathways. Here, we observed that Ac CM, but not CM, induced NF-B activation in preadipocytes as well as the modulation of several target genes. This could be related to the high levels of TNF and IL-6 produced by LPS-activated macrophages; also, other factors cannot be excluded. The preadipocyte inflammation induced by Ac CM could then self-perpetuate through increased secretion of inflammatory factors. Blocking TNF totally inhibited the IL-6 mRNA induction by Ac CM. Because TNF is mostly secreted by macrophages, we suggest that this cytokine is a major mediator of preadipocyte inflammation. However, it cannot be excluded that other macrophage-secreted factors may also be induced during the proinflammatory state of preadipocytes. In contrast, blocking TNF did not totally reverse the defective adipogenesis provoked by CM and Ac CM indicating mostly a TNF-independent process. However, the preadipocyte inflammation could aggravate the altered differentiation process because the inhibitory effects were more pronounced with Ac CM than for CM at least for some adipose-specific markers (aP2, SREBP1-c and FAS; Fig. 3).
During adipose differentiation of murine cell lines, extensive extracellular matrix remodeling takes place characterized by decreased expression of fibronectin (13, 14, 15). Moreover, culture of human preadipocytes on fibronectin matrix markedly inhibits adipogenesis (36). Activated macrophage secreted cytokines might participate to increase fibronectin. Such a role has been clearly demonstrated for TNF in 3T3-L1 cells (19). In addition, fibronectin appears to promote cell proliferation through the induction of cyclin D1 (37), a cell-cycle entry protein, which is a target gene of NF-B (38). Therefore, potential links involving activated NF-B pathway, cyclin D1 and fibronectin, could be established between the inflammatory state and the increased proliferation of Ac CM-treated preadipocytes. Due to a scarcity of material, not all these parameters were assessed in preadipocytes cultured in presence ATM CM. Nevertheless, the marked increase in IL-6 and MCP-1 gene expression strongly suggests that adipose tissue macrophage secreted factors generate NF-B activation-mediated inflammatory state in these cells alike. Of note, such molecular links are unlikely to operate in CM-treated preadipocytes, which display reduced adipogenesis, but no alteration in NF-B activation, fibronectin levels, and cyclin D1 gene expression. Further experiments examining gene expression and canonical pathways are needed to provide information on the specific molecular mechanisms involved in this condition.
The significance of the proinflammatory state of preadipocytes and their defective engagement toward adipogenesis need to be understood, particularly in obesity, which is characterized by macrophage infiltration. In particular, signals favoring macrophage infiltration in adipose tissue remains poorly understood. Monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and IL-8, which play crucial role for the recruitment of immune cells in inflammatory zones, could be candidates. The role of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 was evidenced by recent data showing that CCR2 (monocyte chemotactic protein-1 receptor) deficiency reduced macrophage content of adipose tissue in obese mice (39). The monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and IL-8 releases by human adipose tissue, mainly attributed to the stroma vascular cells, are increased during obesity (40, 41). Our data clearly showed increased expression of IL-8 and/or monocyte chemotactic protein-1 by Ac CM- and ATM CM-treated preadipocytes. These chemokines, and probably others, produced by the inflammatory preadipocytes could participate with other stroma vascular cells to macrophage recruitment and maintenance in adipose tissue.
In summary, our data suggest that in adipose tissue, and particularly in the obesity context, the factors secreted by infiltrated macrophages inhibit the formation of new adipocytes and facilitate their proliferation. This phenomenon could represent an adaptive response to limit fat expansion in humans. However, it remains to be demonstrated whether the proliferative effect of activated macrophages on preadipocytes may represent a major determinant of resistance to weight loss or could lead to weight regain in obese subjects.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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Author Disclosure Summary: All of the authors have nothing to disclose.
First Published Online November 2, 2006
Abbreviations: ATM, Adipose tissue macrophage; C/EBP, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein; CM, conditioned media; FBS, fetal bovine serum; I-B, inhibitor B; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; NF-B, nuclear factor B; PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; SVF, stroma vascular fraction.
Received May 23, 2006.
Accepted for publication October 25, 2006.
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prevents the differentiation of human adipocyte precursor cells and causes delipidation of newly developed fat cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76:742–747[Abstract]B activation by TNF- is obligatory. Diabetes 51:1319–1336 function through the TAK1/TAB1/NIK cascade. Nat Cell Biol 5:224–230[CrossRef][Medline]B signaling. Many roads lead to Madrid. Cell 111:615–619[CrossRef][Medline]B. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 5:392–401[CrossRef][Medline]. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25:2062–2068 activators. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 300:472–476[CrossRef][Medline]B indicates that it participates in its own regulation. EMBO J 11:195–203[Medline] is required for the differentiation of adipose tissue in vivo and in vitro. Mol Cell 4:611–617[CrossRef][Medline] induces adipogenesis through PPARgamma: a unified pathway. Genes Dev 16:22–26 and the molecular control of adipogenesis. J Endocrinol 155:217–218-mediated inhibition and reversal of adipocyte differentiation is accompanied by suppressed expression of PPAR without effects on Pref-1 expression. Endocrinology 138:2776–2783This article has been cited by other articles:
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