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Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461
Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Dr. Anne M. Etgen, Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461. E-mail: etgen{at}aecom.yu.edu.
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Introduction |
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Estradiol-17ß, the primary estrogen secreted by the ovaries, acts on neurons to increase spine density and synapse number (6, 7, 8) and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor NR1 subunit expression (9) and potentiates kainate-elicited currents in CA1 pyramidal neurons (10, 11). Moreover, estrogens afford neuroprotection in experimental models of global and focal ischemia (12, 13, 14, 15) and ameliorate the cognitive deficits associated with ischemic cell death (16, 17). Although the cellular sites mediating these actions are unclear, estrogen receptors-
and -ß are expressed in the hippocampus in which they could subserve the neuroprotective actions of estradiol (18).
Cross talk between estradiol and trophic factors such as IGF-I is implicated in the cellular actions of estradiol. Estradiol and IGF-I act synergistically in neurons to regulate synaptic remodeling, neuronal differentiation and neuronal survival (19). IGF-I receptors are critical to estradiol protection of hilar neurons from seizure-induced injury (20). In the brain, estradiol and IGF-I activate ERK/MAPK (19), a well-characterized intracellular signaling cascade implicated in neuronal plasticity and survival (13, 21, 22). Upon stimulation with estradiol, estradiol receptor- and IGF-I receptor form a macromolecular signaling complex, which recruits and activates downstream kinases including MAPK (23, 24, 25). ERK/MAPK signaling culminates in phosphorylation and activation of nuclear transcription factors such as cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB), which regulate target genes important to neuronal survival and protection. CREB targets implicated in neuronal survival include the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (21).
The present study sought to identify molecular targets, especially intracellular signaling cascades, which mediate estradiol neuroprotection in global ischemia. We show that estradiol acts via classical estrogen receptors, IGF-I receptors, and ERK/MAPK signaling to promote neuronal survival after transient global ischemia. Global ischemia promotes dephosphorylation and inactivation of ERK1 and its target, the transcription factor CREB, followed by down-regulation of Bcl-2 and activation of the caspase death cascade. Estradiol markedly attenuates ischemia-induced dephosphorylation and inactivation of ERK1 and CREB, down-regulation of Bcl-2 and activation of caspase-3. Pharmacological blockade of ERK reverses the effects of estradiol on both ERK and CREB phosphorylation but not on Bcl-2. Thus, estradiol and IGF-I coordinately activate ERK/MAPK signaling and its target CREB, thereby promoting neuronal survival in the face of global ischemia.
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Materials and Methods |
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Ovariectomy and estradiol pellet implantation
Female Mongolian gerbils were ovariectomized and female Sprague Dawley rats were ovariohysterectomized under halothane anesthesia (4% for induction, followed by 1% for maintenance). Seven days later, pellets containing estradiol-17ß (gerbils: 0.36 mg/pellet, 60 d sustained release; rats: 0.05 mg/pellet, 21 d sustained release; Innovative Research of America, Inc., Sarasota, FL) or placebo were inserted sc beneath the dorsal surface of the neck. Estradiol pellets were present for 14 d before ischemia and remained in place until the animals were killed at 1 h to 2 d after ischemia for molecular studies or 7 d after ischemia for histological analysis.
Global ischemia
Experiments were performed in rats, with the exception of the estrogen receptor and IGF-I receptor antagonist treatments, which were performed in gerbils. Gerbils offer an advantage, compared with rats, in that they lack posterior communicating arteries, structures that in humans and rats complete the circle of Willis and permit collateral blood flow via the vertebral arteries. Thus, global ischemia can be produced in gerbils by the relatively simple procedure, bilateral occlusion of the carotid arteries. However, many of the available antibodies used in the present study recognize rat (but not gerbil) proteins with high affinity and good signal to noise. Therefore, we carried out most experiments in rats using four-vessel occlusion (see below).
Fourteen days after pellet implantation, gerbils were fasted overnight and anesthetized with halothane (4% for induction, followed by 1% for maintenance) delivered by mask in a mixture of N2/O2 (70:30) by means of a Vapomatic anesthetic vaporizer (CWE Inc., Ardmore, PA). Gerbils were subjected to global ischemia by temporary occlusion of both carotid arteries for 5 min with nontraumatic aneurism clips followed by reperfusion as described (26) or to sham operation. Sham-operated animals were subjected to the same anesthesia and surgical procedures as animals subjected to global ischemia, except that the carotid arteries were not occluded. Rats were subjected to global ischemia by four-vessel occlusion as described (27). In brief, 13 d after pellet implantation, rats were fasted overnight and anesthetized with halothane as described above for gerbils. The vertebral arteries were subjected to electrocauterization, the common carotid arteries were exposed and isolated with a 3–0 silk thread, and the wound was sutured. Twenty-four hours later, the animals were anesthetized again, the wound was reopened and both carotid arteries were occluded for 10 min with nontraumatic aneurism clips, followed by reperfusion. Arteries were visually inspected to ensure adequate reflow. Sham-operated rats were subjected to the same anesthesia and surgical procedures as animals subjected to global ischemia (vertebral artery coagulation and carotid artery exposure), except that the carotid arteries were not occluded.
In all cases, anesthesia was discontinued immediately after initiation of carotid artery occlusion. Body temperature was monitored and maintained at 37.5 ± 0.5 C with a rectal thermistor and heat lamp until recovery from anesthesia. Animals that failed to show complete loss of the righting reflex and dilation of the pupils from 2 min after occlusion was initiated until the end of occlusion and the rare animals that exhibited obvious behavioral manifestations (abnormal vocalization when handled, generalized convulsions, hypoactivity) or loss of more than 20% body weight by 3–7 d were excluded from the study. After reperfusion, arteries were visually inspected to ensure adequate flow. Sixty gerbils and 175 rats were subjected to global ischemia. There were seven deaths in gerbils and three deaths in rats due to respiratory arrest. Another two gerbils and 18 rats were excluded from the study because they failed to show neurological signs of ischemia (no loss of consciousness or incomplete dilation of the pupils during occlusion). Rats and gerbils that died from respiratory arrest or failed to show neurological signs of ischemia were not concentrated in either the placebo or estradiol-treated groups.
ICI 182,780, JB-1, and PD98059 intracerebroventricular (icv) administration
Halothane-anesthetized animals were injected with the broad-spectrum estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 (100 µg; Tocris, Ellisville, MO), the competitive IGF-I receptor antagonist JB-1 (10 µg; Bachem Inc., Budendorf, Switzerland), or the ERK/MAPK inhibitor PD98059 (3 µg; Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA) or vehicle (10 µl of 50% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), saline, or 10% DMSO, respectively) by unilateral injection into the right lateral ventricle at a flow rate of 5 µl/min immediately after global ischemia (14 d after pellet implantation) or sham surgery and again 12 h later. The icv injections of 75% DMSO have no obvious harmful effects (28). Animals were positioned in a Kopf small animal stereotaxic frame with the incisor bar lowered 3.3 ± 0.4 mm below horizontal zero. A stainless steel cannula (28 gauge) was lowered stereotaxically into the right lateral ventricle to a position defined by the following coordinates: 0.4 mm posterior to bregma, 1.2 mm lateral to bregma, 2.6 mm below the skull surface (gerbils), or 0.92 mm posterior to bregma, 1.2 mm lateral to bregma, 3.6 mm below the skull surface (rats) according to the atlas of Paxinos and Watson (29).
Histological analysis
Neuronal cell loss was assessed by histological examination of toluidine blue-stained brain sections at the level of the dorsal hippocampus from animals killed at 7 d after ischemia (21 d after pellet implantation) or sham operation. Animals were deeply anesthetized with pentobarbital (50 mg/kg, ip), and blood was collected by cardiac puncture for assay of plasma estradiol levels (see below); this was followed by transcardiac perfusion with ice-cold 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS [0.1 M (pH 7.4)]. Brains were removed and immersed in fixative (4 C overnight). Coronal sections (15 µm) were cut at the level of the dorsal hippocampus (3.3–4.0 mm posterior from bregma) with an electronic cryotostat (Thermo Electron Corp., Pittsburgh, PA), and every fourth section was collected and stained with toluidine blue. The number of surviving pyramidal neurons per 250-µm length of the medial CA1 pyramidal cell layer was counted bilaterally in four sections per animal as described (30) under a light microscope at x40 magnification. Cell counts from the right and left hippocampus on each of the four sections were averaged to provide a single value (number of neurons per 250 µm length) for each animal.
Serum estradiol assay
Tubes containing whole blood were placed on ice (10 min) and centrifuged at 300 x g for 5 min. Serum was collected and stored (–20 C) until analyzed. Serum hormone levels were measured by fluoroimmunoassay using the DELPHIA estradiol assay (PerkinElmer Life Sciences, Turku, Finland). All assays were performed in duplicate and the mean value reported. The sensitivity of detection is 13 pg/ml. The inter- and intraassay coefficients of variance are 10.1 and 4.1%, respectively.
Antibodies
The following antibodies were used in this study: 1) Bcl-2, an affinity purified polyclonal antibody raised against a peptide mapping within the amino terminus of Bcl-2 of human origin (1:100 for immunolabeling, 1:1000 for Western; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, CA); 2) antiphospho MAPK (p-ERK1/2) mouse monoclonal antibody, which recognizes ERK1 and ERK2 that are phosphorylated on both a threonine and a tyrosine residue (clone 12D4, 1:5000; Upstate Biotechnology, Inc., Lake Placid, NY); 3) anti-MAPK1/2 (ERK1/2) rabbit polyclonal antibody, which recognizes total ERK1/ERK2 (1:5000; Upstate Biotechnology); 4) anti-ERK5 and phospho-ERK5 (p-Thr218/p-Tyr220) rabbit polyclonal antibodies (ERK5, 1:500; p-ERK5, 1:200; Cell Signaling Technology, Inc., Beverly, MA); 5) antiphospho-CREB (p-CREB) rabbit polyclonal antibody, which recognizes CREB phosphorylated at serine 133 (1:3000; Upstate Biotechnology); 6) anti-CREB rabbit polyclonal antibody, which recognizes total CREB (1:3000; Upstate Biotechnology); 7) anti-ß-actin mouse monoclonal antibody, which recognizes an epitope located within the N-terminal domain of the ß-isoform of actin (1:20,000; Sigma, St. Louis, MO); and 8) antihistone H3 rabbit polyclonal antibody, which recognizes endogenous histone H3 protein only (1:1000; Cell Signaling Technology). Secondary antibodies for Westerns were horseradish peroxidase-conjugated donkey antirabbit IgG (1:5000; Amersham, Buckinghamshire, UK) for polyclonal antibodies or sheep antimouse IgG (1:2500; Amersham) for monoclonal antibodies.
Western blot analysis
For quantification of protein abundance in the hippocampal CA1, whole-cell lysates (ERK1/2, p-ERK1/2), cytosolic (Bcl-2), and nuclear (CREB, p-CREB) fractions isolated from the microdissected hippocampal CA1 subfield of experimental and sham animals were prepared at 1, 3, 12, 24, and 48 h after reperfusion. Proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and subjected to Western blot analysis as described (27). Protein concentration was determined by BCA protein assay kit (Pierce, Rockford, IL). Aliquots of protein (40–70 µg) were dissolved in Laemmli sample buffer [0.025 M Tris-HCl, 5% glycerol, 1% sodium dodecyl sulfate, 0.5% PBS, 0.1 M dithiothreitol, 2.5 mM ß-mercaptoethanol, 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 0.5 mM NaHNO3 buffer (pH 6.8)], loaded onto 10% polyacrylamide gels, subjected to electrophoresis, and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes for immunolabeling with antibodies to p-ERK1/2, ERK1/2, p-ERK5, ERK5, p-CREB, CREB, or Bcl-2. After reaction, membranes were treated with enhanced chemiluminescence reagents (ECL; Amersham Life Science, Buckinghamshire, UK) and apposed to XAR-5 x-ray film (Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, NY). Membranes were reprobed with anti-ß-actin antibody as a loading control. In Western experiments to monitor p-CREB, the purity of the nuclear and cytosolic fractions was routinely monitored by reprobing membranes with antihistone H3 antibody (nuclear marker; see Fig. 4C
). Whereas histone H3 labeling was strong in the nuclear fractions, it was absent in all cytosolic fractions examined.
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Immunolabeling
Animals were deeply anesthetized with pentobarbital (50 mg/kg, ip) and perfused transcardially with 4% paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffer [0.1 M (pH 7.4)] at 24 and 48 h after ischemia or sham operation (n = 3 independent experiments for each time point and treatment group). Brains were removed, postfixed (2 h at 4 C), frozen, and cut into sections (40 µm) in the coronal plane of the dorsal hippocampus (3.3–4.0 mm posterior from bregma. Free-floating sections were blocked in 10% normal serum, 5% BSA, and 0.01% saponin in PBS (2 h at room temperature) and processed for immunolabeling with anti-Bcl-2 polyclonal antibody, overnight at 4 C, followed by biotinylated goat antirabbit IgG (1:200; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). Sections were then incubated with avidin peroxidase complex (ABC kit, 1 h at room temperature; Vector Laboratories), followed by 3–3'-diaminobenzidine (Vector Laboratories). Images were viewed through a Nikon inverted microscope ECLIPSE TE300 and images acquired with a SPOT RT CCD-cooled camera with Diagnostic software version 3.0 (Diagnostic Instruments, Inc., Sterling Heights, MI).
Caspase activity assay
Caspase activity assays were performed on fresh-frozen brain sections using an APO LOGIXTM carboxyfluorescein (FAM) caspase detection kit (Cell Technology, Minneapolis, MN) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. FAM-DEVD (Asp-Glu-Val-Asp)-fluoromethyl ketone (FMK) is a carboxy-fluorescein analog of zDEVD (N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp)-FMK, a broad-spectrum cysteine protease inhibitor that enters cells and irreversibly binds activated caspases (31, 32, 33). FAM-DEVD-FMK exhibits higher affinity for caspase-3 than caspase-8, caspase-7, caspase-10, or caspase-6 (34) and exhibits much lower affinity for the calpains than for caspases; thus, at 5 µM FAM-DEVD is a relatively selective inhibitor of caspase-3. Moreover, FAM-DEVD-FMK labeling of CA1 neurons correlates well with caspase-3 activation, as assessed by Western blot analysis. In this study we therefore refer to FAM-DEVD-FMK labeling as indicative of caspase-3 activity. In brief, animals were deeply anesthetized with pentobarbital (50 mg/kg, ip) and killed by decapitation at 24 h after ischemia or sham operation (control). Brains were removed, frozen, and cut into sections (18 µm) in the coronal plane of the dorsal hippocampus. Brain sections (three per animal) were labeled with 5 µM FAM-DEVD-FMK (1 h, 37 C), washed three times with 1x working dilution wash buffer and viewed under a Nikon ECLIPSE TE-300 fluorescent microscope equipped with an image analysis system at an excitation wavelength of 488 nm and emission wavelength of 565 nm. Images were acquired with a SPOT RT CCD-cooled camera with Diagnostic software version 3.0. For quantitation of caspase-3 activity, the fluorescence intensity within the entire hippocampal CA1 cell layer of the images was analyzed using NIH Image 1.61. The mean fluorescence intensity of CA1 in the right and left hemisphere from each of the three sections was averaged to provide a single value for each animal.
Statistical analysis
The results were expressed as mean ± SEM. Data analysis was performed using Pharmacological Calculation System (Springer Verlag, New York, NY; version 4.2). Statistical comparisons were made between groups using a one-way ANOVA followed by Newman-Keuls post hoc analysis (neuron counts, immunoblots and caspase-3 activity). T test was used for the serum estradiol data. Differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.
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, B and G, with Fig. 1, A, and F; and see Fig. 1K). Qualitative analysis revealed that neuronal death was specific in that little or no cell loss occurred in the nearby CA2 or transition zone or CA3 or dentate gyrus (Fig. 1B). Estradiol reduced the loss of CA1 neurons by approximately 60% (P < 0.01 vs. ischemia, Fig. 1, C, H, and K). Plasma estradiol levels at the time of death were 15.4 ± 1.4 pg/ml in the placebo group and 136.35 ± 12.9 pg/ml in the estradiol group. The estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 did not detectably alter the appearance or number of surviving neurons in placebo or estradiol-treated animals subjected to sham surgery (see supplemental Fig. 1, published as supplemental data on The Endocrine Society’s Journals Online Web site at http://endo.endojournals.org), but ICI 182,780 abrogated the neuroprotective action of estradiol in CA1, assessed at 7 d after ischemia (P < 0.01 vs. estradiol, Fig. 1, D, I, and K). Moreover, the vehicle for ICI 182,780 had no effect on surviving neurons in either sham-operated or ischemic animals (Fig. 1K and supplemental Fig. 1). These findings indicate that estradiol protection of hippocampal neurons requires activation of the classical estrogen receptors- and/or -ß and is similar to our findings with female rats (30).
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, E, J, and K). Saline and JB-1 alone had no effect on surviving neurons in either sham or ischemic animals (Fig. 1K; see also Fig. 1 legend and supplemental Fig. 1). These findings indicate that brain IGF-I receptors are critical to estradiol protection of gerbil hippocampal neurons in global ischemia.
MAPK signaling is critical to estradiol protection of CA1 neurons
Because estradiol and IGF-I are known upstream regulators of ERK/MAPK signaling in hippocampal neurons (19, 36), we next examined a possible role for MAPK signaling in estradiol protection. Many of the available antibodies used in the present study recognize rat (but not gerbil) antigens with high affinity and good signal to noise. Thus, these experiments were conducted in rats. Ovariectomized female rats pretreated with estradiol or placebo for 14 d were subjected to global ischemia or sham operation, and the MAPK kinase (MEK) inhibitor PD98059 or vehicle was administered into the lateral ventricle at 0 and 12 h after surgery. Global ischemia induced extensive death of pyramidal cells in the hippocampal CA1 at 7 d after ischemia (P < 0.01 vs. sham; compare Fig. 2, D and K, with Fig. 2, A and H; and see Fig. 2O). As observed for gerbils, estradiol did not detectably alter the appearance or number of CA1 neurons in sham-operated rats (Fig. 2, B, I, and O) but greatly reduced the ischemia-induced neuronal loss (P < 0.01 vs. ischemia, Fig. 2, F, M, and O). Plasma estradiol levels at the time of death were 20.6 ± 1.3 pg/ml in the placebo group and 58.1 ± 3.8 pg/ml in the estradiol group. The MEK inhibitor PD98059 did not detectably alter the number or appearance of surviving neurons in sham-operated rats (Fig. 2, C, J, and O) but abrogated the neuroprotective action of estradiol in the hippocampal CA1 (P < 0.01 vs. estradiol alone, Fig. 2, G, N, and O). In contrast, PD98059 did not affect neuronal survival in placebo-treated animals subjected to sham surgery (Fig. 2, C, J, and O) or ischemia (Fig. 2, E, L, and O). These findings indicate that PD98059 administered icv is neither toxic nor protective in the global ischemia model. Consistent with this, PD98059 does not impair locomotion, and its inhibitory actions on hormone-dependent behaviors are readily reversible (37, 38). Together, these findings indicate that ERK/MAPK signaling is critical to estradiol protection of hippocampal neurons in a rat model of global ischemia.
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, A and B); at 3 h, p-ERK1 levels were not significantly different from controls (Fig. 3, A and B). Estradiol significantly increased ERK1 and ERK2 phosphorylation in sham-operated animals (ERK1, increase to 
200% of control, P < 0.01, Fig. 3, A and B; ERK2, increase to 142% of control, P < 0.05, Fig. 3, A and C) and prevented the early ischemia-induced dephosphorylation of ERK1 (Fig. 3, A and B). Whereas p-ERK1 was reduced at 1 h after ischemia, it was increased significantly in the CA1 at 24 h after ischemia vs. sham-operated animals (Fig. 3D). In contrast, global ischemia did not significantly alter ERK2 phosphorylation at any times examined (Fig. 3, A, C, and E).
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). These findings indicate that global ischemia induces dephosphorylation of ERK1 (but not ERK2 or 5) in the early postischemic period and that estradiol maintains p-ERK1 at higher levels than would otherwise be observed in the postischemic period. PD98059 administered immediately after reperfusion blocked the estradiol-induced increase in phosphorylation of ERK1 (Fig. 3, A and B) and ERK2 (Fig. 3, A and C) in sham-operated animals and reversed the ability of estradiol to maintain ERK1 phosphorylation in postischemic CA1, assessed at 1 h after surgery (Fig. 3, A and B). These findings demonstrate that PD98059 infused into the ventricles reaches the hippocampal CA1 and effectively inhibits its target MEK1/2.
Estradiol prevents ischemia-induced dephosphorylation and inactivation of CREB in CA1
A well-characterized downstream target of ERK/MAPK signaling is the transcription factor CREB, which promotes transcription of a number of prosurvival genes. ERK/MAPK rapidly induces sustained phosphorylation of CREB at serine 133 (40). To examine whether estradiol regulates phosphorylation and activation of CREB, we subjected estradiol- and placebo-treated rats to global ischemia or sham operation and examined CREB and p-CREB abundance in CA1 at 1 and 3 h after reperfusion. Global ischemia induced a significant decrease in p-CREB, with no significant change in total CREB abundance in the nuclear fraction of CA1 (decrease by 25% at 1 h, P < 0.05 vs. sham-operated animals; decrease by 40% at 3 h; P < 0.01 vs. sham-operated animals, Fig. 4, A and B). Estradiol prevented the ischemia-induced dephosphorylation and inactivation of CREB, evident at both 1 and 3 h after ischemia (P < 0.05 vs. placebo-treated, ischemic animals at 1 h, P < 0.01 vs. placebo-treated ischemic animals at 3 h; Fig. 4, A and B). Thus, estradiol blocks insult-induced dephosphorylation and inactivation of CREB in the vulnerable CA1. PD98059 administered immediately after ischemia blocked the ability of estradiol to maintain p-CREB levels in postischemic CA1, assessed at 3 h after surgery. These findings suggest a causal role for ERK/MAPK signaling in the ability of estradiol to maintain CREB phosphorylation and activation in postischemic CA1.
Estradiol attenuates ischemia-induced decrease of Bcl-2 protein expression in CA1 neurons
Bcl-2 is an antiapoptotic factor implicated in preservation of the integrity of the mitochondrial outer membrane, and the bcl-2 gene is a downstream target of estradiol (41, 42) and CREB (for review, see Refs. 43 and 44). Estradiol can also act indirectly to regulate Bcl-2 gene expression by promoting CREB phosphorylation (42, 45). To examine the effects of estradiol pretreatment and ischemia on Bcl-2 protein expression, we subjected estradiol- and placebo-treated animals to global ischemia or sham operation and examined Bcl-2 abundance in CA1 at later times (12, 24, or 48 h) after reperfusion. Global ischemia induced a marked decrease in Bcl-2 expression in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampal CA1, evident at 24 and 48 h, times before onset of neuronal death, as revealed by immunolabeling (Fig. 5, E–H). Estradiol enhanced Bcl-2 immunolabeling in CA1 neurons of sham-operated animals (Fig. 5, A–D) and blocked the ischemia-induced down-regulation of Bcl-2 in CA1 neurons of ischemic animals (Fig. 5, I–L). Because the loss of CA1 pyramidal neurons in rats subjected to 10 min of global ischemia is not detectable until 2–3 d after ischemia (26), it is unlikely that the reduced Bcl-2 immunolabeling at 12 and 24 h simply reflects pyramidal cell death. To assess the effects of ischemia and estradiol on Bcl-2 protein abundance, protein samples from the CA1 were subjected to Western blot analysis (Fig. 5M). Global ischemia induced a marked (50%) decrease in Bcl-2 protein abundance in CA1, evident at 12 h (P < 0.05 vs. placebo-treated, sham animals). Bcl-2 was modestly, but not significantly, decreased as late as 24 and 48 h after ischemia (Fig. 5, M and N). Estradiol blocked the ischemia-induced down-regulation of Bcl-2 in CA1 at 12 h (P < 0.05 vs. ischemia at 12 h), with no detectable decline in Bcl-2 as late as 24 or 48 h after reperfusion (Fig. 5, M and N).
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, M and N), even though this drug blocked the ability of estradiol to promote CA1 pyramidal cell survival (Fig. 2). Interestingly, PD98059 alone significantly increased Bcl-2 in the CA1 of estradiol- (but not placebo) treated sham and ischemic animals (Fig. 5, M and N). Therefore, whereas estradiol appears to maintain CREB signaling in the postischemic CA1 via the ERK/MAPK pathway (Fig. 4), the positive effects of estradiol on Bcl-2 expression are evident, even when this pathway is blocked, and the effects of estradiol and PD908059 on Bcl-2 may be additive. Hence, our findings are consistent with a model whereby estradiol acts on the Bcl-2 gene in a MAPK-independent manner to sustain Bcl-2 gene expression at normal levels in postischemic CA1 neurons.
Estradiol blocks ischemia-induced activation of caspase-3 activity in CA1 neurons
Injurious stimuli such as global ischemia disrupt the integrity of the mitochondrial membrane, leading to the release of cytochrome c and activation of caspase-3, a terminator caspase implicated in the execution step of apoptosis (for review, see Ref. 1). Global ischemia promotes cleavage of the biologically inactive precursor procaspase-3 to generate activated caspase-3 (46); ischemia-induced caspase-3 activity is maximal at 24 h after insult (47). To directly measure caspase-3 functional activity after ischemia, we labeled brain sections with FAM-DEVD-FMK, a fluorescein-tagged analog of the caspase inhibitor zDEVD-FMK, at 24 h. FAM-DEVD-FMK enters cells and binds irreversibly to catalytically active caspase-3 and thus provides a fluorescent indicator of the abundance of active caspase-3. In brain sections from control animals, caspase activity was low (Fig. 6, A and B). Global ischemia induced a dramatic, 6-fold increase in caspase activity in the hippocampal CA1, evident at 24 h (P < 0.01 vs. placebo-treated, sham animals; Fig. 6, C, D, and G). The increase in caspase activity was specific in that it was not observed in the resistant CA3 or dentate gyrus. Estradiol pretreatment (14 d) completely blocked the ischemia-induced elevation of caspase-3 activity in CA1 (Fig. 6, E–G).
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), which converge on ERK/MAPK signaling and CREB to promote neuronal survival in the face of ischemic insults. Although estradiol neuroprotection has previously been shown to require concurrent IGF-I signaling in other animal models (e.g. see Refs. 19 and 20), a recent clinical study demonstrating a positive correlation between the level of circulating IGF-I and better functional outcomes in ischemic stroke suggests that adequate levels of IGF-I receptor activity may be relevant to the human situation (see Ref. 50).
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Estrogen receptor/IGF-I receptor interactions in estradiol neuroprotection
Our study provides new insight into intracellular signaling pathways that mediate estradiol neuroprotection in an in vivo model of global ischemia. The estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780 abrogated estradiol protection in gerbils (present study) and rats (30), documenting a critical role for classical estrogen receptors in protection of hippocampal neurons from global ischemia. The fact that both estrogen receptor- and -ß-selective agonists produce neuroprotection (30, 49) suggests that either receptor can mediate estradiol protection in global ischemia. In contrast, studies involving mice with targeted gene deletions indicate that estrogen receptor-, but not -ß, mediates estradiol protection in focal ischemia (56). Moreover, we cannot rule out a role for G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)-30, a G protein-coupled receptor implicated in estradiol regulation of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling. GPR30 binds estradiol with nanomolar affinity, and ICI 182,780 inhibits estradiol signaling mediated by GPR30 (57, 58). Thus, estradiol might promote neuronal survival by different mechanisms in the global and focal ischemia paradigms.
The finding that the competitive IGF-I receptor antagonist JB-1 also blocks estradiol protection documents a role for IGF-I receptor signaling in preservation of hippocampal neurons after global ischemia. This finding is consistent with evidence that estrogen receptor- and IGF-I receptors are functionally linked (24, 25, 59). Activation of estrogen/IGF-I signaling is implicated in protection of hilar neurons from seizure-induced injury (60), protection of retinal neurons against light-induced degeneration (61), synaptic remodeling of hypothalamic neurons in vivo (62), and estradiol-dependent reproductive behaviors and neuroendocrine responses (63). Recent studies have begun to reveal the molecular underpinnings of this interdependence. Estrogen receptor- and IGF-I receptors form a macromolecular signaling complex that recruits downstream signaling molecules such as Shc, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and insulin receptor substrate-1 (23). Although estrogen receptors also interact with epidermal growth factor receptors and HER-2/neu in peripheral reproductive tissues and tumor cells (57, 64), the relevance to neurons is unclear.
The present experiments were performed in rats, with the exception of ICI and JB-1 experiments, which were in gerbils. Although not confirmed in rats, a role for IGF-I receptors in estradiol protection against ischemic damage is likely to apply across species. First, experiments using JB-1 show that IGF-I receptors are critical to estradiol protection against seizure-induced damage of hippocampal neurons (20) and light-induced damage of retinal neurons in rats (61). Second, there are strong commonalities between the gerbil and rat models of global ischemia (1). In both species, cell death occurs primarily in the hippocampal CA1, in which pyramidal neurons (but not interneurons or astrocytes) die. In both species, histological evidence of cell death is not detectable until at least 48 h. Moreover, ischemia promotes activation of the same death cascades, translocation of the same proteins, and alterations in expression of the same genes, albeit with a somewhat slower time course in gerbils (26, 27, 47). Finally, it is unlikely that there are species differences in the actions of the IGF-I antagonist JB-1, which was developed to target human IGF-I receptors (35).
ERK/MAPK signaling is critical to neuronal survival
ERK/MAPK signaling is a well-known downstream target of estradiol and IGF-I in neurons (65). We show that estradiol pretreatment promotes phosphorylation and activation of ERK1/2 in CA1 of sham-operated animals and blocks ischemia-induced dephosphorylation of ERK1. Furthermore, administration of the ERK/MAPK antagonist PD98059 after ischemia reverses estradiol-dependent ERK1/2 phosphorylation and neuroprotection. These findings implicate ERK/MAPK signaling in protection of hippocampal neurons and are consistent with observations that ERK/MAPK mediates estradiol neuroprotection in models of quinolinic acid (66) and glutamate excitotoxicity (67), ß-amyloid toxicity (68), and oxidative stress (69). In contrast, PD98059 protects neurons in focal ischemia (70, 71, 72). Thus, ERK/MAPK signaling can promote neuronal apoptosis in some cases (73).
Although the PD98059 experiments suggest a role for ERK1 signaling in estradiol protection, we cannot rule out a role for other targets of PD98059 such as MEK5 and/or cyclooxygenase (39). However, we believe that these molecules are unlikely to mediate estradiol neuroprotection. First, estradiol clearly promotes phosphorylation and activation of ERK1/2, but not ERK5. Second, PD98059 reverses the effects of estradiol on ERK1/2 phosphorylation in both sham-operated and ischemic females. Third, PD98059 exhibits a higher affinity for MEK1/2 than for MEK5; thus, at the concentration used in the present study PD98059 may not inhibit ERK5. Moreover, ischemia does not alter ERK5 abundance or activity in CA1 (Ref. 74 , present study), providing strong evidence for target specificity. Fourth, although estradiol regulates cyclooxygenase-2 expression, it does not regulate enzyme activity (75). Finally, PD98059 is a standard pharmacological agent for inhibiting ERK1/2 signaling in neurons in vivo and in vitro (76, 77, 78, 79, 80). Behavioral studies involving PD98059 and another ERK inhibitor (U0126) report essentially identical results (37, 76). Whereas our findings implicate ERK/MAPK signaling as a necessary cellular mediator of estradiol protection, this pathway is not necessarily sufficient for neuronal survival. In particular, our results do not rule out an important role for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, another downstream mediator of estradiol/IGF-I protection (59, 65, 81).
ERK/MAPK signaling is critical to estradiol-dependent CREB activation
The ERK/MAPK cascade can promote neuronal survival by a number of mechanisms including phosphorylation and activation of CREB, which drives transcription of prosurvival genes such as BDNF; phosphorylation and inactivation of the proapoptotic protein Bcl-2-associated death protein (40); and activation of glycogen synthase kinase-3ß, which inhibits Wnt signaling (82). Present findings that estradiol maintains CREB phosphorylation at serine 133 in the face of ischemia and that PD98059 reverses estradiol-dependent CREB phosphorylation indicate a causal relation between ERK/MAPK signaling and CREB activation. Estradiol binding to estrogen receptor- can also activate CREB by promoting metabotropic glutamate receptor-mediated stimulation of MAPK (83) or inducing cAMP synthesis (42, 45).
ERK/MAPK signaling is not critical to estradiol-dependent regulation of Bcl-2 expression
Our finding that estradiol maintains levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 after global ischemia is consistent with studies implicating Bcl-2 in estradiol protection in focal ischemia (84, 85) and in vitro models of cell death (67, 69). Although these paradigms target different neurons and induce death via different mechanisms, regulation of Bcl-2 may be a common mechanism of estradiol neuroprotection. However, it is clear that maintaining Bcl-2 is not sufficient to rescue CA1 neurons from ischemia-induced cell death. We found that the MEK inhibitor PD98059 potentiated the effects of estradiol on Bcl-2 expression but completely blocked the effects of estradiol on cell survival and p-ERK1. Estradiol can increase bcl-2 gene expression by CREB activation in other systems (42, 45), but our finding that PD98059 does not reverse (and may even potentiate) regulation of Bcl-2 levels by estradiol is consistent with a MAPK-independent action of estradiol on bcl-2 gene expression. The loss of CA1 neurons in rats subjected to 10 min of global ischemia is not detectable until 2–3 d after ischemia (26); therefore, it is unlikely that the reduced Bcl-2 immunoreactivity detected at 12 and 24 h after ischemia simply reflects neuronal cell death. However, it is possible that cell death could contribute to the reduction of Bcl-2 observed at 48 h.
Injurious stimuli such as global ischemia disrupt the functional integrity of the outer mitochondrial membrane, releasing cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein with low pI), which activate the caspase death cascade (47, 86, 87, 88). Proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members are thought to participate in formation and activation of large, multiconductance channels that mediate cytochrome c release (1). Antiapoptotic family members such as Bcl-2 preserve the mitochondrial integrity and block caspase activation in the face of injury. Present findings suggest that estradiol promotes neuronal survival, at least in part, by sustaining levels of Bcl-2. Accordingly, acute estradiol prevents ischemia-induced translocation of cytochrome c from mitochondria to the cytosol (89). However, the current findings also suggest that maintenance of Bcl-2 expression is not sufficient to mediate estradiol protection of CA1 neurons because Bcl-2 protein abundance was sustained in estradiol-treated, ischemic females injected with the MEK inhibitor PD98059. Therefore, it is likely that estradiol protects neurons from apoptotic death by regulating the activity of multiple cell survival pathways and that interference with any one of these signaling pathways may lead to delayed cell death.
Summary
The present study shows that estradiol acts via estrogen receptors, IGF-I receptors, and ERK/MAPK signaling to promote CA1 neuronal survival after global ischemia. Ischemia promotes early dephosphorylation and inactivation of ERK1 and its target CREB, followed by down-regulation of Bcl-2 and caspase activation. Estradiol attenuates dephosphorylation of ERK1 and CREB, down-regulation of Bcl-2, and activation of caspase-3. These findings identify intracellular signaling pathways that mediate estradiol protection and reveal mechanisms by which estradiol protects hippocampal neurons from global ischemia-induced degeneration. These findings suggest that estradiol and IGF-I act in a coordinate manner to promote activation of ERK/MAPK signaling and its target CREB and thereby promote neuronal survival in the face of ischemic insults.
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Disclosure Statement: T.J.-M. has nothing to declare. R.S.Z. received lecture fees from Novo Nordisk. A.M.E. consulted for Pfizer, Inc.
First Published Online November 30, 2006
Abbreviations: BDNF, Brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CREB, cAMP-response element binding protein; DMSO, dimethylsulfoxide; FAM, carboxyfluorescein; FMK, fluoromethyl ketone; GPR, G protein-coupled receptor; icv, intracerebroventricular; MEK, MAPK kinase.
Received August 17, 2006.
Accepted for publication November 21, 2006.
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forms estrogen-dependent multimolecular complexes with insulin-like growth factor receptor and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in the adult rat brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 112:170–176[Medline] and ß to protect hippocampal neurons against global ischemia-induced cell death. Endocrinology 146:3070–3079-reduced metabolites involves mitogen-activated protein kinase. Endocrinology 145:5560–5567
, P < 0.01 ischemia+estradiol vs. ischemia or ischemia+estradiol+PD98059.
